Vatican City and Catholic Church
Vatican City and Catholic Church
Vatican City i/ˈvætɨkən ˈsɪti/, or Vatican City State,[13] in Italian officially Stato della Città del Vaticano (pronounced [ˈstaːto della t͡ʃitˈta del vatiˈkaːno]),[14] is a landlocked sovereign city-state whose territory consists of a walled enclave within the city of Rome. It has an area of approximately 44 hectares (110 acres), Levono Ideapad G560 Keyboard
and a population of just over 800.[3][15] This makes Vatican City the smallest internationally recognized independent state in the world by both area and population. The Pope is also the Head of State and Government of the Vatican City State. Levono Ideapad Z570 Keyboard
Vatican City was established as an independent state in 1929 by the Lateran Treaty, signed by Cardinal Secretary of State Pietro Gasparri, on behalf of Pope Pius XI and by Prime Minister Benito Mussolini on behalf of King Victor Emmanuel III of Italy.[16] The treaty spoke of it as a new creation (Preamble and Article III), Levono Ideapad Z560 Keyboard
Levono Ideapad Z565 Keyboard not as a vestige of the much larger Papal States (756–1870) that had previously encompassed much of central Italy. Vatican City State is distinct from the Holy See,[17] which dates back to early Christianity and is the main episcopal see of 1.4 billion Latin and Eastern Catholic adherents around the globe. Levono Ideapad Y560P Keyboard
Levono Ideapad Y570 Keyboard Ordinances of Vatican City are published in Italian; official documents of the Holy See are issued mainly in Latin. The two entities have distinct passports: the Holy See, not being a country, issues only diplomatic and service passports, whereas Vatican City State issues normal passports. Levono Ideapad Y560 Keyboard
Vatican City is an ecclesiastical[3] or sacerdotal-monarchical[4] state, ruled by the Bishop of Rome—the Pope. The highest state functionaries are all Catholic clergymen of various national origins. It is the sovereign territory of the Holy See (Sancta Sedes) Levono Ideapad V570A Keyboard
Levono Ideapad G575 Keyboard and the location of the Pope's residence, referred to as the Apostolic Palace. The Popes have generally resided in the area that in 1929 became Vatican City since the return from Avignon in 1377, but have also at times resided in the Quirinal Palace in Rome and elsewhere.
Main article: Geography of Vatican City
The Vatican climate is the same as Rome's; a temperate, Mediterranean climate with mild, rainy winters from September to mid-May and hot, dry summers from May to August. There are some local features, principally mists and dews, Levono Ideapad V570 Keyboard
Levono Ideapad B570A Keyboard caused by the anomalous bulk of St Peter's Basilica, the elevation, the fountains and the size of the large paved square.
Territory of Vatican City according to the Lateran Treaty
The name "Vatican" predates Christianity and comes from the Latin Mons Vaticanus, meaning Vatican Mount.[
Levono Ideapad B575 Keyboard21] The territory of Vatican City is part of the Mons Vaticanus, and of the adjacent former Vatican Fields. It is in this territory that St. Peter's Basilica, the Apostolic Palace, the Sistine Chapel, and museums were built, along with various other buildings. The area was part of the Roman rione of Borgo until 1929. Levono Ideapad V570C Keyboard
Levono Ideapad B570 KeyboardBeing separated from the city, on the west bank of the Tiber river, the area was an outcrop of the city that was protected by being included within the walls of Leo IV (847–55), and later expanded by the current fortification walls, built under Paul III (1534–49), Pius IV (1559–65) and Urban VIII (1623–44). HP Probook 4320S Keyboard
Entrance to Vatican City from Rome
When the Lateran Treaty of 1929 that gave the state its form was being prepared, the boundaries of the proposed territory were influenced by the fact that much of it was all but enclosed by this loop. For some tracts of the frontier, there was no wall, but the line of certain buildings supplied part of the boundary, and for a small part of the frontier a modern wall was constructed.
The territory includes St. Peter's Square, distinguished from the territory of Italy only by a white line along the limit of the square, where it touches Piazza Pio XII. St. Peter's Square is reached through the Via della Conciliazione which runs from close to the Tiber River to St. Peter's. HP Probook 4321S Keyboard
HP Probook 5310M Keyboard This grand approach was constructed by Benito Mussolini after the conclusion of the Lateran Treaty.
According to the Lateran Treaty, certain properties of the Holy See that are located in Italian territory, most notably the Papal Palace of Castel Gandolfo and the major basilicas, enjoy extraterritorial status similar to that of foreign embassies.[22][ HP Probook 4325S Keyboard
HP Probook 4730S Keyboard23] These properties, scattered all over Rome and Italy, house essential offices and institutions necessary to the character and mission of the Holy See.[23]
Castel Gandolfo and the named basilicas are patrolled internally by police agents of Vatican City State and not by Italian police. St. Peter's Square is ordinarily policed jointly by both.[22] HP Probook 4329S Keyboard
St. Peter's Square, the basilica and obelisk, from Piazza Pio XII
Gardens[edit]
Part of the Vatican Gardens
Main article: Gardens of Vatican City
Within the territory of Vatican City are the Vatican Gardens (Italian: Giardini Vaticani),[24] which account for more than half of this territory. The gardens, established during the Renaissance and Baroque era, are decorated with fountains and sculptures. HP Probook 4410 Keyboard
The gardens cover approximately 23 hectares (57 acres) which is most of the Vatican Hill. The highest point is 60 metres (200 ft) above mean sea level. Stone walls bound the area in the North, South and West. HP Probook 4410S Keyboard
The gardens date back to medieval times when orchards and vineyards extended to the north of the Papal Apostolic Palace.[25] In 1279 Pope Nicholas III (Giovanni Gaetano Orsini, 1277–1280) moved his residence back to the Vatican from the Lateran Palace and enclosed this area with walls.[26]
HP Probook 4535S KeyboardHe planted an orchard (pomerium), a lawn (pratellum) and a garden (viridarium).[26]
In this originally uninhabited area (the ager vaticanus) on the opposite side of the Tiber from the city of Rome, Agrippina the Elder (14 BC – 18 October AD 33) drained the hill and environs and built her gardens in the early 1st century AD. Emperor Caligula (31 August AD 12–24 January AD 41; r. 37–41) started construction of a circus (AD 40) that was later completed by Nero, HP Probook 4410T Keyboard
HP Probook 4530S Keyboardthe Circus Gaii et Neronis,[27] usually called, simply, the Circus of Nero. In AD 69, the Year of the Four Emperors, when the northern army that brought Aulus Vitellius to power arrived in Rome, "a large proportion camped in the unhealthy districts of the Vatican, which resulted in many deaths among the common soldiery; HP Probook 4411S Keyboard
HP Probook 4525S Keyboard and the Tiber being close by, the inability of the Gauls and Germans to bear the heat and the consequent greed with which they drank from the stream weakened their bodies, which were already an easy prey to disease".[28] HP Probook 4413S Keyboard
The Vatican obelisk was originally taken by Caligula from Heliopolis, Egypt to decorate the spina of his circus and is thus its last visible remnant. This area became the site of martyrdom of many Christians after the Great Fire of Rome in AD 64. Ancient tradition holds that it was in this circus that Saint Peter was crucified upside-down. HP Probook 4414S Keyboard
Opposite the circus was a cemetery separated by the Via Cornelia. Funeral monuments and mausoleums and small tombs as well as altars to pagan gods of all kinds of polytheistic religions were constructed lasting until before the construction of the Constantinian Basilica of St. Peter's in the first half of the 4th century. IBM Thinkpad E525 Keyboard
Remains of this ancient necropolis were brought to light sporadically during renovations by various popes throughout the centuries increasing in frequency during the Renaissance until it was systematically excavated by orders of Pope Pius XII from 1939 to 1941. IBM Thinkpad E520S Keyboard
In 326, the first church, the Constantinian basilica, was built over the site that early Catholic apologists (from the first century on) as well as noted Italian archaeologists argue was the tomb of Saint Peter, buried in a common cemetery on the spot. IBM Thinkpad E520 Keyboard
IBM Thinkpad X201S KeyboardFrom then on the area started to become more populated, but mostly only by dwelling houses connected with the activity of St. Peter's. A palace was constructed near the site of the basilica as early as the 5th century during the pontificate of Pope Symmachus (reigned 498–514).[29]
Popes in their secular role gradually came to govern neighbouring regions and, through the Papal States, ruled a large portion of the Italian peninsula for more than a thousand years until the mid 19th century, when all of the territory of the Papal States was seized by the newly created Kingdom of Italy.
For much of this time the Vatican was not the habitual residence of the Popes, but rather the Lateran Palace, and in recent centuries, the Quirinal Palace, while the residence from 1309–77 was at Avignon in France. IBM Thinkpad E425 Keyboard
Italian unification[edit]
Main article: Roman Question
View of the dome of Saint Peter's Basilica from Borgo Santo Spirito.
In 1870, the Pope's holdings were left in an uncertain situation when Rome itself was annexed by the Piedmont-led forces which had united the rest of Italy, after a nominal resistance by the papal forces. Between 1861 and 1929 the status of the Pope was referred to as the "Roman Question". IBM Thinkpad E420S Keyboard
IBM Thinkpad SL400 KeyboardIn practice Italy made no attempt to interfere with the Holy See within the Vatican walls. However, they confiscated church property in many places. In 1871, the Palazzo Quirinale, for centuries the Papal palace, was confiscated by the king of Italy and became the royal palace.
IBM Thinkpad SL500 KeyboardThereafter the popes resided undisturbed within the Vatican walls, and certain papal prerogatives were recognized by the Law of Guarantees, including the right to send and receive ambassadors. But the Popes did not recognise the Italian king's right to rule in Rome,
IBM Thinkpad SL510 Keyboardand they refused to leave the Vatican compound until the dispute was resolved in 1929; Pope Pius IX (1846–78), the last ruler of the Papal States, claimed that after Rome was annexed he was a "Prisoner in the Vatican".. Other states continued to maintain international recognition of the Holy See as a sovereign entity. IBM Thinkpad E120 Keyboard
Lateran treaties[edit]
Main article: Lateran Treaty
The Apostolic Palace.
This situation was resolved on 11 February 1929, when the Lateran Treaty between the Holy See and the Kingdom of Italy was signed by Prime Minister and Head of Government Benito Mussolini on behalf of King Victor Emmanuel III and by Cardinal Secretary of State Pietro Gasparri for Pope Pius XI.[16] The treaty, which became effective on 7 June 1929, IBM Thinkpad E125 Keyboard
IBM Thinkpad E220 Keyboardestablished the independent state of Vatican City and reaffirmed the special status of Catholicism in Italy.[30]
World War II[edit] Dell RX221 keyboard
Main article: Vatican City during World War II
Vatican City officially pursued a policy of neutrality during World War II, under the leadership of Pope Pius XII. Although the city of Rome was occupied by Germany from 1943 and the Allies from 1944, Vatican City itself was not occupied. Dell P0XM3 keyboard
Dell HT514 keyboardOne of Pius XII's main diplomatic priorities was to prevent the bombing of Rome; so sensitive was the pontiff that he protested even the British air dropping of pamphlets over Rome, claiming that the few landing within the city-state violated the Vatican's neutrality.[31] Dell ORX221 keyboard
Dell HT514 keyboardBefore the American entry into the war, there was little impetus for such a bombing, as the British saw little strategic value in it.[32]
After the American entry, the US opposed such a bombing, fearful of offending Catholic members of its military forces, while the British then supported it.[33] Pius XII similarly advocated for the declaration of Rome as an "open city",Dell UK723UK keyboard
Dell FM760 keyboard but this occurred only on 14 August 1943, after Rome had already been bombed twice.[34] Although the Italians consulted the Vatican on the wording of the open city declaration, the impetus for the change had little to do with the Vatican.[35] Dell 0FM760 keyboard
1980s – present[edit]
In 1984, a new concordat between the Holy See and Italy modified certain provisions of the earlier treaty, including the position of Catholicism as the Italian state religion, a position given to it by a statute of 1848.[30] Dell PTP49 keyboard
Governance[edit]
The politics of Vatican City takes place in an absolute elective monarchy, in which the head of the Catholic Church takes power. The Pope exercises principal legislative, executive, and judicial power over the State of Vatican City (an entity distinct from the Holy See), Dell Latitude E4310 Keyboard
Dell Latitude E6330 Keyboard which is a rare case of a non-hereditary monarchy.[36] The Vatican is the only remaining absolute monarchy in Europe. Dell Latitude E4320 Keyboard
Vatican City is currently the only widely recognised independent state that has not become a member of the UN. The Holy See, which is distinct from Vatican City State, has permanent observer status with all the rights of a full member except for a vote in the UN General Assembly.
Political system[edit]
The government of Vatican City has a unique structure. The Pope is the sovereign of the state. Legislative authority is vested in the Pontifical Commission for Vatican City State, a body of cardinals appointed by the Pope for five-year periods. Dell Latitude E4200 Keyboard
Dell Latitude E6120 Keyboard Executive power is in the hands of the President of that commission, assisted by the General Secretary and Deputy General Secretary. The state's foreign relations are entrusted to the Holy See's Secretariat of State and diplomatic service. Dell Latitude E4300 Keyboard
Dell Latitude E5530 Keyboard Nevertheless, the pope has full and absolute executive, legislative and judicial power over Vatican City. He is currently the only absolute monarch in Europe.
There are specific departments that deal with health, security, telecommunications, etc.[37] Dell Latitude E6500 Keyboard
The Cardinal Camerlengo presides over the Apostolic Camera to which is entrusted the administration of the property and the protection of the temporal rights of the Holy See during a papal vacancy.
Dell Latitude E6420 Keyboard Those of the Vatican State remain under the control of the Pontifical Commission for the State of Vatican City. Acting with three other cardinals chosen by lot every three days, one from each order of cardinalsDell Latitude E5400 Keyboard
(cardinal bishop, cardinal priest, and cardinal deacon), he in a sense performs during that period the functions of head of state of Vatican City.[citation needed] All the decisions these four cardinals take must be approved by the College of Cardinals as a whole. Dell Latitude E5500 Keyboard
The nobility that was closely associated with the Holy See at the time of the Papal States continued to be associated with the Papal Court after the loss of these territories, generally with merely nominal duties (see Papal Master of the Horse, Prefecture of the Pontifical Household, Hereditary officers of the Roman Curia, Black Nobility). Dell Latitude E5510 Keyboard
Dell Latitude E5420 Keyboard They also formed the ceremonial Noble Guard. In the first decades of the existence of the Vatican City State, executive functions were entrusted to some of them, including that of Delegate for the State of Vatican City (now denominated President of the Commission for Vatican City). But with the motu proprio Pontificalis Domus of 28 March 1968,[
Dell Precision M4400 Keyboard 38] Pope Paul VI abolished the honorary positions that had continued to exist until then, such as Quartermaster General and Master of the Horse.[39]
The State of the Vatican City, created in 1929 by the Lateran Pacts, provides the Holy See with a temporal jurisdiction and independence within a small territory. Dell Latitude E6420-ATG Keyboard
It is distinct from the Holy See. The state can thus be deemed a significant but not essential instrument of the Holy See. The Holy See itself has existed continuously as a juridical entity since Roman Imperial times and has been internationally recognised as a powerful and independent sovereign entity since late antiquity to the present, Dell Latitude E6430-ATG Keyboard
Dell Precision M6400 Keyboard without interruption even at times when it was deprived of territory (e.g. 1870 to 1929). The Holy See has the oldest active continuous diplomatic service in the world, dating back to at least AD 325 with its legation to the Council of Nicea.[40] Ambassadors are accredited to the Holy See, never to the Vatican City State. Dell Latitude E6430S Keyboard
Head of state[edit]
Main article: Pope
Vatican City
The Pope is ex officio head of state[41] of Vatican City, functions dependent on his primordial function as bishop of the diocese of Rome. The term Holy See refers not to the Vatican state but to the Pope's spiritual and pastoral governance, largely exercised through the Roman Curia.[42] His official title with regard to Vatican City is Sovereign of the State of the Vatican City. Dell Latitude E6430-XFR Keyboard
His principal subordinate government official for Vatican City is the President of the Pontifical Commission for Vatican City State, who since 1952 exercises the functions previously belonging to the Governor of Vatican City. Since 2001, Dell Latitude E6520N Keyboard
Dell Precision M4600 Keyboard the President of the Pontifical Commission for Vatican City State also has the title of President of the Governorate of the State of Vatican City. Dell Latitude E6530 Keyboard
Although Popes usually reside in the Papal Apartments of the Papal Palace overlooking Saint Peter's Square, Pope Francis resides in the Vatican's guest house, Domus Sanctae Marthae. He still carries out his business and meets foreign representatives in the Papal Palace. Dell Latitude E5220 Keyboard
Pope Francis, born Jorge Mario Bergoglio in Buenos Aires, Argentina, was elected on 13 March 2013. Italian Cardinal Giuseppe Bertello serves as President of the Pontifical Commission for the State of Vatican City, a post to which he was appointed on 1 October 2011. Dell Latitude E5420M Keyboard
Administration[edit]
Saint Apollinaris Building (Palazzo sant'Apollinare)
Legislative functions are delegated to the unicameral Pontifical Commission for Vatican City State, led by the President of the Pontifical Commission for Vatican City State. Its seven members are cardinals appointed by the Pope for terms of five years. Dell Latitude E6400 Keyboard
Dell Latitude E6410-ATG Keyboard Acts of the commission must be approved by the pope, through the Holy See's Secretariat of State, and before taking effect must be published in a special appendix of the Acta Apostolicae Sedis. Most of the content of this appendix consists of routine executive decrees, such as approval for a new set of postage stamps. Dell Latitude E6500 Keyboard
Executive authority is delegated to the Governorate of Vatican City. The Governorate consists of the President of the Pontifical Commission—using the title "President of the Governorate of Vatican City"—a general secretary, and a Vice general secretary, each appointed by the pope for five-year terms. Important actions of the Governorate must be confirmed by the Pontifical Commission and by the Pope through the Secretariat of State. Dell Latitude E6400-ATG Keyboard
Dell Latitude E6400-XFR Keyboard
The Governorate oversees the central governmental functions through several departments and offices. The directors and officials of these offices are appointed by the pope for five-year terms. These organs concentrate on material questions concerning the state's territory, Dell Latitude E4310 Battery
including local security, records, transportation, and finances. The Governorate oversees a modern security and police corps, the Corpo della Gendarmeria dello Stato della Città del Vaticano.
Dell Latitude E6430-XFR Battery
Judicial functions are delegated to a supreme court, an appeals court, a tribunal (Tribunal of Vatican City State), and a trial judge.[43] In all cases, the pope may choose at any time to exercise supreme legislative, executive, or judicial functions in the state.
The international postal country code prefix is SCV, and the only postal code is 00120 – altogether SCV-00120.[44]
Military and police[edit]
Swiss Guards in their traditional uniform
Main articles: Military of Vatican City, Crime in Vatican City, and Corps of Gendarmerie of Vatican City
Though, like various European powers, earlier Popes recruited Swiss mercenaries as part of an army, the Pontifical Swiss Guard was founded by Pope Julius II on 22 January 1506 as the personal bodyguard of the Pope and continues to fulfil that function. Dell Latitude E4320 Battery
Dell Latitude E6430-ATG Battery
It is listed in the Annuario Pontificio under "Holy See", not under "State of Vatican City". At the end of 2005, the Guard had 134 members. Recruitment is arranged by a special agreement between the Holy See and Switzerland. All recruits must be Catholic, Dell Latitude E4300 Battery
unmarried males with Swiss citizenship who have completed their basic training with the Swiss Army with certificates of good conduct, be between the ages of 19 and 30, and be at least 174 cm (5 ft 9 in) in height. Members are armed with small arms and the traditional halberd (also called the Swiss voulge), and trained in bodyguarding tactics. Dell Latitude E6500 Battery
Dell Latitude E6420-ATG Battery
The Palatine Guard and the Noble Guard were disbanded by Pope Paul VI in 1970.[45] While the first body was founded as a militia at the service of the Papal States, its functions within the Vatican State, like those of the Noble Guard, were merely ceremonial. Dell Latitude E5400 Battery
The Corpo della Gendarmeria acts as a police force. Its full name is Corpo della Gendarmeria dello Stato della Città del Vaticano (which means "Gendarmerie Corps of the Vatican City State"), although it is sometimes referred to as the Vigilanza, Dell Latitude E5500 Battery
Dell Latitude E6230 Batteryas a shortening of an earlier name. The Gendarmeria is responsible for public order, law enforcement, crowd and traffic control, and criminal investigations in Vatican City.[45]
The military defence of the Vatican City is provided by Italy and its armed forces, given the fact that Vatican City is an enclave within the Italian Republic. Vatican City has no armed force of its own, the Swiss Guard being a corps of the Holy See responsible for the security of the Pope.
Foreign relations[edit] Dell Latitude E5510 Battery
Palace of the Governorate of Vatican City State
See also: Foreign relations of the Holy See and List of diplomatic missions of the Holy See
Vatican City State is a recognised national territory under international law, but it is the Holy See that conducts diplomatic relations on its behalf, Dell Latitude E5420 Battery
Dell Latitude E6120 Battery in addition to the Holy See's own diplomacy, entering into international agreements in its regard. The Vatican City State thus has no diplomatic service of its own.
Because of space limitations, Vatican City is one of the few countries in the world that is unable to host embassies.
Dell Latitude E5530 Battery Foreign embassies to the Holy See are located in the city of Rome; only during the Second World War were the staff of some embassies accredited to the Holy See given what hospitality was possible within the narrow confines of Vatican City—embassies such as that of the United Kingdom while Rome was held by the Axis Powers and Germany's when the Allies controlled Rome.
The size of Vatican City is thus unrelated to the large global reach exercised by the Holy See as an entity quite distinct from the state.[46] Dell Latitude E5520 Battery
However, Vatican City State itself participates in some international organizations whose functions relate to the state as a geographical entity, distinct from the non-territorial legal persona of the Holy See. Dell Latitude E6530 Battery
These organizations are much less numerous than those in which the Holy See participates either as a member or with observer status. They include the following eight, in each of which Vatican City State holds membership:[47][48] Dell Latitude E5420M Battery
Main article: Economy of Vatican City
The Vatican City State budget[50] includes the Vatican museums and post office and is supported financially by the sale of stamps, coins, medals and tourist mementos; by fees for admission to museums; and by publications sales. The incomes and living standards of lay workers are comparable to those of counterparts who work in the city of Rome.[5Dell Latitude E6400 Battery
Dell Precision M6500 Battery1] Other industries include printing, the production of mosaics, and the manufacture of staff uniforms.
The Institute for Works of Religion, also known as the Vatican Bank, and with the acronym IOR (Istituto per le Opere di Religione), is a bank situated in the Vatican that conducts worldwide financial activities. It has an ATM with instructions in Latin, possibly the only such ATM in the world.[52]
Vatican City issues its own coins. It has used the euro as its currency since 1 January 1999, owing to a special agreement with the European Union (council decision 1999/98/CE). Euro coins and notes were introduced in 1 January 2002—the Vatican does not issue euro banknotes. Issuance of euro-denominated coins is strictly limited by treaty, Dell Latitude E6500 Battery
Dell Precision M4500 Battery though somewhat more than usual is allowed in a year in which there is a change in the papacy.[53] Because of their rarity, Vatican euro coins are highly sought by collectors.[54] Until the adoption of the Euro, Vatican coinage and stamps were denominated in their own Vatican lira currency, which was on par with the Italian lira. Dell Latitude E6400-ATG Battery
The Vatican City State, which employs nearly 2,000 people, had a surplus of 6.7 million euros in 2007 but ran a deficit in 2008 of over 15 million euros.[55] Dell Latitude E6400-XFR Battery
In 2012, the U.S. State Department's International Narcotics Control Strategy Report listed Vatican City for the first time among the nations of concern for money-laundering, placing it in the middle category, which includes countries such as Ireland, but not among the most vulnerable countries, which include the United States itself, Germany, Italy and Russia.[56] Dell Latitude E6410-ATG Battery
Demographics[edit]
Population and languages[edit]
Vatican Museums
Main article: Languages of Vatican City
Almost all of Vatican City's 826 (2009 est.)[57] citizens either live inside the Vatican's walls or serve in the Holy See's diplomatic service in embassies (called "nunciatures"; a papal ambassador is a "nuncio") around the world. Dell Latitude E5430 Battery
The Vatican citizenry consists almost entirely of two groups: clergy, most of whom work in the service of the Holy See, and a very few as officials of the state; Dell Precision M2400 Battery
Dell Precision M4600 Battery and the Swiss Guard. Most of the 2,400 lay workers who comprise the majority of the Vatican workforce reside outside the Vatican and are citizens of Italy, while a few are citizens of other nations. As a result, all of the City's actual citizens are Catholic as are all the places of worship. Dell XPS 14 Battery
The Seal of Vatican City. Note the use of the Italian language.
Vatican City has no formally enacted official language, but, unlike the Holy See which most often uses Latin for the authoritative version of its official documents, Vatican City uses only Italian in its legislation and official communications. Dell XPS 14D Battery
[58] Italian is also the everyday language used by most of those who work in the state. In the Swiss Guard, German is the language used for giving commands, but the individual guards take their oath of loyalty in their own languages, German, Dell XPS 14D-L401X Battery
Dell XPS L502X Battery French, Romansh or Italian. Vatican City's official website languages are Italian, English, French, German, and Spanish. (This site should not be confused with that of the Holy See, which uses all these languages, along with Portuguese, with Latin since 9 May 2008 and Chinese since 18 March 2009.) Dell XPS 15 Battery
Citizenship[edit]
Before 1 March 2011[edit]
Unlike citizenship of other states, which is based either on jus sanguinis (birth from a citizen, even outside the state's territory) or on jus soli (birth within the territory of the state), citizenship of Vatican City is granted jus officii, namely on the grounds of appointment to work in a certain
Dell XPS 17-L702X Battery capacity in the service of the Holy See. It usually ceases upon cessation of the appointment. Citizenship is extended also to the spouse, parents and descendants of a citizen, provided they are living with the person who is a citizen.[59][60] Dell XPS 15D Battery
Anyone who loses Vatican citizenship and does not possess other citizenship automatically becomes an Italian citizen as judged by Italian law.[22]
As of 31 December 2005, there were, apart from the Pope himself, 557 people with Vatican citizenship, while there were 246 residents in the state who did not have its citizenship.
Of the 557 citizens, 74% were clergy: Dell XPS 15-L501X Battery
58 cardinals, resident in Rome, mostly outside the Vatican;
293 clergy, members of the Holy See's diplomatic missions, resident in other countries, and forming well over half the total of the citizens;
62 other clergy, working but not necessarily living in the Vatican.
The 101 members of the Papal Swiss Guard constituted 18% of the total, and there were only 43 other lay persons with Vatican citizenship.[61] Dell XPS 15-L502X Battery
After 1 March 2011[edit]
On 22 February 2011, Pope Benedict XVI promulgated a new "Law concerning citizenship, residency and access" to Vatican City, which became effective on 1 March. It replaced the 1929 "Law concerning citizenship and residence".[62Dell Inspiron 14V battery
] There are 16 articles in the new law, whereas the old law had 33 articles.[63] Vatican citizenship now has four categories: (1) the pope, (2) cardinals residing in Vatican City, (3) active members of the Holy See's diplomatic corps, and (4) Dell Inspiron N4020 battery
Dell Inspiron 13R batteryother directors of Vatican offices and services.[63] The new law created a new status, that of official Vatican "residents", i.e., people who live in Vatican City, now are not citizens.[63] As of 1 March 2011, the Vatican had 572 citizens, but only 220 of them were living in Vatican City.[63] The other 352 citizens were apostolic nuncios and diplomatic staff.[63] Dell Inspiron N4030 battery
Dell Inspiron N4110 batteryThe 220 citizens living in Vatican City were among more than 800 people living in the Vatican.[63]
360-degree view from the dome of St. Peter's Basilica, looking over the Vatican's Saint Peter's Square (centre) and out into Rome, showing Vatican City in all directions.
Culture[edit]
Michelangelo's Pietà is one of the Vatican's best known artworks.
Main article: Culture of Vatican City
Vatican City is home to some of the most famous art in the world. St. Peter's Basilica, whose successive architects include Bramante, Michelangelo, Giacomo della Porta, Maderno and Bernini, is a renowned work of Renaissance architecture. The Sistine Chapel is famous for its frescos, which include works by Perugino, Dell Inspiron N7110 battery
Dell Inspiron N5010D batteryDomenico Ghirlandaio and Botticelli as well as the ceiling and Last Judgment by Michelangelo. Artists who decorated the interiors of the Vatican include Raphael and Fra Angelico.
The Vatican Library and the collections of the Vatican Museums are of the highest historical, scientific and cultural importance. In 1984, the Vatican was added by UNESCO to the List of World Heritage Sites; it is the only one to consist of an entire state.[64Dell Inspiron N7010R battery
Dell Inspiron 17R battery] Furthermore, it is the only site to date registered with the UNESCO as a centre containing monuments in the "International Register of Cultural Property under Special Protection" according to the 1954 Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict.[64] Dell Inspiron N7010D battery
Infrastructure[edit]
Transport[edit]
Vatican's Railway Station
Main article: Transport in Vatican City
Vatican City has a reasonably well developed transport network considering its size (consisting mostly of a plaza and walkways). As a country that is 1.05 kilometres (0.6 mi) long and 0.85 kilometres (0.5 mi) wide,[65
Dell Inspiron N4010R battery] it has a small transportation system with no airports or highways. There is one heliport and a standard gauge railway connected to Italy's network at Rome's Saint Peter's station by an 852-metre-long (932 yd) spur, only 300 metres (330 yd) of which is within Vatican territory.[66]
Pope John XXIII was the first Pope to make use of this railway, and Pope John Paul II used it as well, albeit very rarely. The railway is mainly used to transport freight.[66] As Vatican City has no airports (it is one of the few independent states in the world without one, except for the aforementioned heliport),
Dell Inspiron N4010 batteryit is served by the airports that serve the city of Rome, namely: Leonardo da Vinci-Fiumicino Airport and to a lesser extent, Ciampino Airport, both of which serve as the departure gateway for the Pope's international visits.[66] Dell Inspiron N5110 battery
Communications[edit]
The stamp vending machine of the Vatican Postal Service
The City is served by an independent, modern telephone system,[67] the Vatican Pharmacy, and post office. The postal system was founded on 11 February 1929, and two days later became operational. On 1 August,
Dell Inspiron N3010R batterythe state started to release its own postal stamps, under the authority of the Philatelic and Numismatic Office of the Vatican City State.[68] The City's postal service is sometimes recognised as "the best in the world"[69] and mail has been noted to get to its target before the postal service in Rome.[69] Dell Inspiron N5030 battery
The Vatican also controls its own Internet TLD, which is registered as (.va). Broadband service is widely provided within Vatican City. Vatican City has also been given a radio ITU prefix, HV, and this is sometimes used by amateur radio operators. HP 640426-001 CPU fan with heatsink
Vatican Radio, which was organised by Guglielmo Marconi, broadcasts on short-wave, medium-wave and FM frequencies and on the Internet.[70] Its main transmission antennae are located in Italian territory. Television services are provided through another entity, the Vatican Television Center.[71]
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L'Osservatore Romano is the multilingual semi-official newspaper of the Holy See. It is published by a private corporation under the direction of Roman Catholic laymen but reports on official information. However, the official texts of documents are in the Acta Apostolicae Sedis, the official gazette of the Holy See, which has an appendix for documents of the Vatican City State. HP 640903-001 CPU fan with heatsink
Vatican Radio, the Vatican Television Center, and L'Osservatore Romano are organs not of the Vatican State but of the Holy See, and are listed as such in the Annuario Pontificio, which places them in the section "Institutions linked with the Holy See", HP 641477-001 CPU fan with heatsink
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ahead of the sections on the Holy See's diplomatic service abroad and the Diplomatic Corps accredited to the Holy See, after which is placed the section on the State of Vatican City.
Crime[edit] HP 650848-001 CPU fan with heatsink
Main article: Crime in Vatican City
Crime in the Vatican City consists largely of purse snatching, pickpocketing and shoplifting by outsiders.[72] The tourist foot-traffic in St. Peter's Square is one of the main locations for pickpockets in Vatican City.[73] HP 653627-001 CPU fan with heatsink
The Corpo della Gendarmeria dello Stato della Città del Vaticano (Corps of Gendarmerie of Vatican City State) is the gendarmerie, or police and security force, of Vatican City and the extraterritorial properties of the Holy See.[74] HP 665309-001 CPU fan with heatsink
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The corps is responsible for security, public order, border control, traffic control, criminal investigation, and other general police duties in Vatican City including providing security for the pope outside of Vatican City.
HP 431311-001 CPU fan with heatsinkThe corps has 130 personnel and is a part of the Security and Civil Defense Services Department (which also includes the Vatican Fire Brigade), an organ of the Governorate of Vatican City.[75][76] HP 650057-001 CPU fan with heatsink
Under the terms of article 22 the Lateran Treaty,[77] Italy will, at the request of the Holy See, punish individuals for crimes committed within Vatican City and will itself proceed against the person who committed the offence,
HP 582141-001 CPU fan with heatsink if that person takes refuge in Italian territory. Persons accused of crimes recognized as such both in Italy and in Vatican City that are committed in Italian territory will be handed over to the Italian authorities if they take refuge in Vatican City or in buildings that under the treaty enjoy immunity.[78] [79] HP 650797-001 CPU fan with heatsink
Vatican City has no prison system, apart from a few detention cells for pretrial detention.[80] People convicted of committing crimes in the Vatican serve terms in Italian prisons (Polizia Penitenziaria), with costs covered by the Vatican.[81] HP 384622-001 CPU fan with heatsink
The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the world's largest Christian church, with 1.2 billion members.[note 1] It is among the oldest institutions in the world and has played a prominent role in the history of Western civilisation. HP 535439-001 CPU fan with heatsink
HP 582140-001 CPU fan with heatsink The Catholic hierarchy is led by the Pope and includes cardinals, patriarchs and diocesan bishops. The Church teaches that it is the one true church divinely founded by Jesus Christ, that its bishops are the successors of Christ's apostles and that the Pope is the sole successor to Saint Peter who has apostolic primacy.[note 2][note 3][note 4]
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The Church maintains that the doctrine on faith and morals that it presents as definitive is infallible.[note 5] There are a variety of doctrinal and theological emphases, including the Eastern Catholic Churches, the personal ordinariates and religious communities such as the Jesuits, the Franciscans and the Dominicans. HP 535766-001 CPU fan with heatsink
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The Catholic Church is Trinitarian and defines its mission as spreading the Gospel of Jesus Christ,[4] administering the sacraments[5] and exercising charity.[6] Catholic worship is highly liturgical, focusing on the Mass or Divine Liturgy during which the sacrament of the Eucharist is celebrated. HP 582139-001 CPU fan with heatsink
HP 602472-001 CPU fan with heatsinkThe Church teaches that bread and wine used during the Mass become the body and blood of Christ through transubstantiation. The Catholic Church practises closed communion and only baptised members of the Church in a state of grace are ordinarily permitted to receive the Eucharist.[7HP 582140-001 CPU fan with heatsink
HP 579158-001 CPU fan with heatsink] It holds the Blessed Virgin Mary, as mother of Jesus Christ, in special regard and has defined four specific Marian dogmatic teachings, namely her Immaculate Conception without original sin, her status as the Mother of God, her perpetual virginity and her bodily Assumption into Heaven at the end of her earthly life.[note 6] HP 582141-001 CPU fan with heatsink
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Catholic social teaching emphasises support for the poor and the afflicted through the corporal works of mercy. The Catholic Church is the largest non-government provider of education and medical services in the world.[9HP 431311-001 CPU fan with heatsink
HP 534685-001 CPU fan with heatsink] It operates social programmes and institutions throughout the world, including Catholic schools, universities, hospitals, missions and shelters, as well as charities such as Catholic Relief Services and Caritas that help families, the poor, HP 431312-001 CPU fan with heatsink
HP 534684-001 CPU fan with heatsinkthe elderly and the sick. Catholic spiritual teaching emphasises spread of the Gospel message and growth in spiritual discipline through the spiritual works of mercy.
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Further information: Roman Catholic (term) and History of the term "Catholic"
The term "catholic" is derived from the Greek word καθολικός (katholikos) meaning "universal" and was first used to describe the Church in the early 2nd century.[10] The term katholikos is equivalent to καθόλου (katholou), HP 443917-001 CPU fan with heatsink
HP 534675-001 CPU fan with heatsink a contraction of the phrase καθ' ὅλου (kath' holou) meaning "according to the whole".[11] "Catholic Church" (he katholike ekklesia) first appears in a letter of St Ignatius written in about 110.[1HP 456605-001 CPU fan with heatsink
HP 532617-001 CPU fan with heatsink2] In the "Catechetical Discourses" of St. Cyril of Jerusalem, "Catholic Church" is used to distinguish it from other groups that also call themselves the church.[12][13]
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Since the East–West Schism of 1054, the church that remained in communion with the See of Rome continued to call itself "Catholic" while the Eastern churches have generally been known as "Orthodox" or "Eastern Orthodox".[14] HP 487436-001 CPU fan with heatsink
HP 532141-001 CPU fan with heatsink Following the Reformation in the 16th century, the Church continued to use the term "Catholic" to distinguish itself from the various Protestant denominations that split off.[14] HP 498480-001 CPU fan with heatsink
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The name "Catholic Church" is the most common designation used in official church documents.[15] It is also the term which Paul VI used when signing documents of the Second Vatican Council.[16] However, Church documents produced both by the Holy See[17] and by certain national episcopal conferences[HP 603690-001 CPU fan with heatsink
HP 610773-001 CPU fan with heatsink18] occasionally refer to the Roman Catholic Church. The Catechism of Pope Pius X published in 1908 also used the term "Roman" to distinguish the Catholic Church from other Christian communities who are not in full communion with the Church of Rome.[19]
Organisation and demographics HP 603691-001 CPU fan with heatsink
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The Church's hierarchy is headed by the Bishop of Rome, the pope (Latin: papa), who is the leader of the worldwide Catholic Church composed of the Latin Church and the Eastern Catholic Churches in full communion with the see of Rome. The current pope is Pope Francis, elected on 13 March 2013 by papal conclave.[note 7] HP 604787-001 CPU fan with heatsink
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The office of the pope is known as the Papacy. The Church holds that Christ instituted the Papacy, upon giving the keys of Heaven to Saint Peter. His ecclesiastical jurisdiction is called the "Holy See" (Sancta Sedes in Latin), or the "Apostolic See" (meaning the see of the Apostle Saint Peter).[20][21
HP 606014-001 CPU fan with heatsink] Directly serving the Pope is the Roman Curia, the central governing body that administers the day-to-day business of the Catholic Church. The pope is also head of state of Vatican City State,[22] HP 606575-001 CPU fan with heatsink
HP 612355-001 CPU fan with heatsink a sovereign city-state entirely enclaved within the city of Rome. The legal entity of the Holy See is distinct from that of the Vatican City state and all foreign relations are accredited to the Holy See.[23] HP 606729-001 CPU fan with heatsink
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Following the death or resignation of a pope,[note 8] members of the College of Cardinals who are under age 80 meet in the Sistine Chapel in Rome to elect a new pope.[25] The position of cardinal is a rank of honour bestowed by popes on certain ecclesiastics, such as leaders within the Roman Curia, bishops serving in major cities and distinguished theologians. HP 606731-001 CPU fan with heatsink
HP 606609-001 CPU fan with heatsinkAlthough this election, known as a papal conclave, can theoretically elect any male Catholic as pope, since 1389 only fellow cardinals have been elevated to that position.[26]
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For advice and assistance in governing, the pope may turn to the College of Cardinals, the next highest level in the hierarchy.[27]
Autonomous particular churches
Main articles: Latin Church and Eastern Catholic Churches
The Catholic Church is made up of 23 autonomous particular churches, each of which accepts the paramountcy of the Bishop of Rome on matters of doctrine.[28][29] HP 608010-001 CPU fan with heatsink
HP 657942-001 CPU fan with heatsink These churches, also known by the Latin term sui iuris churches, are communities of Catholic Christians whose forms of worship reflect different historical and cultural influences rather than differences in doctrine. In general, each sui iuris church is headed by a patriarch or high ranking bishop,[3HP 608095-001 CPU fan with heatsink
HP 655983-001 CPU fan with heatsink0] and has a degree of self-governance over the particulars of its internal organisation, liturgical rites, liturgical calendar and other aspects of its spirituality.
The largest of the particular churches is the Latin Church which reports over one billion members. It developed in southern Europe and North Africa. HP 608229-001 CPU fan with heatsink
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HP 643258-001 CPU fan with heatsinkThen it spread throughout Western, Central and Northern Europe, before expanding to the rest of the world. The Latin Church considered itself to be the oldest and largest branch of Western Christianity,[ HP 622028-001 CPU fan with heatsink
HP 535442-001 CPU fan with heatsink31] a heritage of certain beliefs and customs originating in various European countries, some of which are shared also by many Christian denominations that trace their origins to the Protestant Reformation.[31] HP 631742-001 CPU fan with heatsink
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Relatively small in terms of adherents compared to the Latin Church, but important to the overall structure of the Church, are the 22 self-governing Eastern Catholic Churches with a membership of 17.3 million as of 2010. HP 637610-001 CPU fan with heatsink
HP 533736-001 CPU fan with heatsink [2] The Eastern Catholic Churches follow the traditions and spirituality of Eastern Christianity and are composed of Eastern Christians who have always remained in full communion with the Catholic Church or who have chosen to reenter full communion in the centuries following the East–West Schism and earlier divisions. Some Eastern Catholic Churches are governed by a patriarch who is elected by the synod of the bishops of that church,[32]
HP 480481-001 CPU fan with heatsink others are headed by a major archbishop,[33] others are under a metropolitan,[34] and others consist of individual eparchies.[35] The Roman Curia has a specific department, the Congregation for the Oriental Churches, to maintain relations with them.
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Dioceses, parishes and religious orders
Individual countries, regions, or major cities are served by local particular Churches known as dioceses or eparchies, each overseen by a Catholic bishop. Each diocese is united with one of the worldwide "sui iuris" particular churches, HP 642731-001 CPU fan with heatsink
HP 657529-001 CPU fan with heatsink such as the Latin Church, or one of the many Eastern Catholic Churches. As of 2008, the Catholic Church altogether comprised 2,795 dioceses.[36] The bishops in a particular country or region are often organised into an episcopal conference,[3HP 622033-001 CPU fan with heatsink
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HP 576838-001 CPU fan with heatsink7] which aids in maintaining a uniform style of worship and co-ordination of social justice programmes within the areas served by member bishops.
Dioceses are further divided into numerous individual communities called parishes, each staffed by one or more priests, deacons and/or lay ecclesial ministers.[ HP 610778-001 CPU fan with heatsink
HP 434678-001 CPU fan with heatsink38] Parishes are responsible for the day to day celebration of the sacraments and pastoral care of the Catholic laity.
Ordained Catholics, as well as members of the laity, may enter into consecrated life either on an individual basis, as a hermit or consecrated virgin, or by joining an institute of consecrated life (a religious institute or a secular institute) in which to take vows confirming their desire to follow the three evangelical counsels of chastity, poverty and obedience.[3HP 631743-001 CPU fan with heatsink
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HP 431448-001 CPU fan with heatsink9] Examples of institutes of consecrated life are the Benedictines, the Carmelites, the Dominicans, the Franciscans, the Missionaries of Charity and the Sisters of Mercy.[39]
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Women constitute the majority of members of the consecrated life within the church. In 2006, the number of nuns worldwide had been in decline, but women still constituted around 753,400 members of the consecrated life, of a total worldwide membership of around 945,210. HP 532613-001 CPU fan with heatsink
HP 486844-001 CPU fan with heatsinkOf these members, 191,810 were men—including around 136,171 priests. Women were engaged in a variety of vocations, from contemplative prayer, to teaching, providing health care and working as missionaries.[40]
Membership statistics
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Further information: Catholicism by country
Total church membership in 2011 (remaining steady at 17.5% of the world population) was 1,214 million people,[1] having increased from 437 million in 1950[41HP 582321-001 CPU fan with heatsink
HP 492314-001 CPU fan with heatsink] and 654 million in 1970.[42] Compared to 2010 statistics, the rate of increase was 1.5% overall, with 2.3% increase in Africa, and 0.3% in the Americas and Europe. Worldwide, the Catholic population is broken down as 48.8% from the Americas, 23.5% from Europe, 16.0% from Africa, 10.9% from Asia, and 0.8% from Oceania.[1] HP 532614-001 CPU fan with heatsink
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Membership in the Catholic Church is attained through baptism or reception into the Church (for individuals previously baptised in non-Catholic Christian churches).[4HP 587244-001 CPU fan with heatsink
HP 486799-001 CPU fan with heatsink3] For some years until 2009, if someone formally left the Church, that fact was noted in the register of the person's baptism.
In 2011, Vatican records listed 413,418 Catholic priests in the world. The main growth areas have been Asia and Africa, with 39% and 32% growth respectively over the year 2000.[1] HP 535438-001 CPU fan with heatsink
Since the early 2000s the number of practicing Catholics have been reported to be declining in millions throughout the world.[44]
Worship and liturgy
Main article: Catholic liturgy
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Samples of Catholic religious objects—The Holy Bible, a Crucifix, and a Rosary.
Altar in St Mary's Church in Alexandria, Virginia. The altar is at the centre of Catholic worship because it is there that the "Holy Sacrifice of the Mass" takes place.
Among the 23 autonomous (sui iuris) churches, numerous forms of worship and liturgical traditions exist, called "rites", which reflect historical and cultural diversity rather than differences in belief.[45] In the definition of the Code of Canons of the Eastern Churches, Sony VPCF12K4E Keyboard
"a rite is the liturgical, theological, spiritual, and disciplinary patrimony, culture and circumstances of history of a distinct people, by which its own manner of living the faith is manifested in each Church sui iuris",[Sony VPCF13K4E Keyboard
Sony VPCF12B4E Keyboard46] but the term is often limited to liturgical patrimony. The most commonly used liturgy is the Roman Rite in its ordinary form, but other rites are in use in the Eastern Catholic Churches and even in the Latin Church. Sony VPCF13B4E Keyboard
Celebration of the Eucharist
In all rites the Mass, or Divine Liturgy, is the centre of Catholic worship. The Catholic Church teaches that at each Mass the bread and wine become the body and blood of Christ by the words of consecration spoken by the priest. The Church teaches that this happens through transubstantiation,
Sony VPCF11M4E Keyboard in which the "accidents" (perceptible aspects) of the sacramental bread and wine remain, but the underlying substance is transmuted into the body, blood, soul and divinity of Christ, and is not merely symbolic.[47] The words of consecration are drawn from the three synoptic Gospels and a Pauline letter.[ Sony VPCF13C4E Keyboard
48] The Church teaches that Christ established a New Covenant with humanity through the institution of the Eucharist at the Last Supper, as described in these biblical verses.
Hoc est enim corpus meum ...
“”
— Roman Missal, during the words of consecration (Latin).[49]
Because the Church teaches that Christ is present in the Eucharist,[50] there are strict rules about who may celebrate and who may receive the Eucharist in the Catholic Church. The sacrament can only be celebrated by an ordained Catholic priest. Those who are conscious of being in a state of mortal sin are forbidden to receive the sacrament until they have received absolution through the sacrament of Reconciliation (Penance).[ Sony VPCF13D4E Keyboard
Sony VPCF11J4E Keyboard51] Catholics are normally obliged to abstain from eating for at least an hour before receiving the sacrament.[51]
Catholics, even if they were in danger of death and unable to approach a Catholic minister, may not ask for the sacraments of the Eucharist, penance or anointing of the sick from someone, such as a Protestant minister, who is not known to be validly ordained in line with Catholic teaching on ordination.[52][5Sony VPCF13F4E Keyboard
Sony VPCF11J1E/B Keyboard3] Likewise, even in grave and pressing need, Catholic ministers may not administer these sacraments to those who do not manifest Catholic faith in the sacrament. In relation to the churches of Eastern Christianity not in communion with the Holy See, the Catholic Church is less restrictive, declaring that "a certain communion in sacris, Sony VPCF13G4E Keyboard
Sony VPCF11J04E/H Keyboard and so in the Eucharist, given suitable circumstances and the approval of Church authority, is not merely possible but is encouraged."[54] Sony VPCF13H4E Keyboard
Tridentine Mass in a chapel of the Cathedral of the Holy Cross, Boston in April 2009. This ancient form of the Roman Rite dates back to 1570; most elements are centuries older
The Roman Rite is the most common rite of worship used by the Catholic Church. Its use is found worldwide, spread by missionary activity originating in European Catholic nations throughout Christian history.[56] Sony VPCF13J4E Keyboard
Two forms of the Roman Rite are authorised at present. The generally used ordinary form, celebrated mostly in the vernacular, is that of the post-1969 editions of the Roman Missal, and is known as the Mass of Paul VI. The extraordinary form, celebrated only in Latin, is that of the edition of 1962, the year of the opening of the Second Vatican Council,[57Sony VPCF13J8E Keyboard
Sony VPCF11F4E Keyboard] and is known as the Tridentine Mass.[50][note 9] An outline of the major liturgical elements of Roman Rite Mass can be found in the side bar.
In the United States, "Anglican Use" parishes have been created. They use a variation of the Roman rite that retains some of the wording of the Anglican liturgical rites.[note 10] Sony VPCF13K4E Keyboard
Sony VPCF11E4E KeyboardImplementation is expected of the authorisation granted in 2009 for the creation wherever appropriate of ordinariates for groups of Anglicans who have been approved for entrance into the Catholic Church and who may in the future use a rite that incorporates elements of Anglican tradition.[58] Other Western liturgical rites (non-Roman) include the Ambrosian Rite and the Mozarabic Rite. Sony VPCF13L0E Keyboard
Eastern liturgical rites
An Eastern Catholic bishop of the Syro-Malabar Church holding the Mar Thoma Cross which symbolises the heritage and identity of the Saint Thomas Christians of India
The liturgical rites of the Eastern Catholic Churches are very similar to, and often identical with, the rites used by the Eastern Orthodox and other Eastern Christian churches which historically developed in Russia, Caucasus and the Balkans, Sony VPCF13S8E Keyboard
Sony VPCF11A4E KeyboardNorth Eastern Africa and the Middle East, but are no longer in communion with the Bishop of Rome, the Pope. The Eastern Catholic Churches are either groups of faithful which have restored full communion with the Bishop of Rome, while preserving their identity as Eastern Christians, or groups with which full communion has never been broken. Sony VPCF13Z1E/B Keyboard
The rites used by the Eastern Catholic Churches include the Byzantine Rite, in its Antiochian, Greek and Slavonic varieties, the Alexandrian Rite, the Syriac Rite, the Armenian Rite, the Maronite Rite and the Chaldean Rite. Sony VPCF22M0E Keyboard
Sony VPCF12H4E Keyboard In the past some of the rites used by the Eastern Catholic Churches were subject to some degree of liturgical Latinisation. However, in recent years Eastern Catholic Churches have returned to traditional Eastern practices in accord with the Vatican II decree Orientalium Ecclesiarum. Each church has its own liturgical calendar. Sony VPCF22C5E Keyboard
Doctrine
Further information: Catholic theology
The fundamental beliefs of the Christian religion are summarised in the Nicene Creed. For Catholics, they are detailed in the Catechism of the Catholic Church.[59][ Sony VPCSA2Z9E Battery
60] The Church Catholic holds that it is the One, Holy, Catholic and Apostolic Church. Based on the promises of Christ in the Gospels, the Church believes that it is continually guided by the Holy Spirit—which reveals God's truth through Sacred scripture, Sacred tradition and the Magisterium.[61] Sony VPCSA3N9E Battery
Sony VPCSB3S9E Battery—and so protected infallibly from falling into doctrinal error.[62][63][64][65]
Sacred Scripture consists of the 73 book Catholic Bible. This is made up of the 46 books found in the ancient Greek version of the Old Testament—known as the Septuagint[66]—and the 27 New Testament writings first found in the Codex Vaticanus Graecus 1209 and listed in Athanasius' Thirty-Ninth Festal Letter.[67Sony VPCSA3S9E Battery
][note 11] Sacred Tradition consists of those teachings believed by the Church to have been handed down since the time of the Apostles.[68] Sacred Scripture and Sacred Tradition are collectively known as the "deposit of faith" (depositum fidei). Sony VPCSB1C7E Battery
Sony VPCSB3N9E Battery These are in turn interpreted by the Magisterium (from magister, Latin for "teacher"), the Church's teaching authority, which is exercised by the Pope and the College of Bishops in union with the Pope, the bishop of Rome.[69]
Catholic social teaching Sony VPCSB1S1E Battery
Main article: Catholic social teaching
See also: Catholic Church and health care
Blessed Mother Teresa of Calcutta advocated for the sick, the poor and the needy by practising the acts of corporal works of mercy. Sony VPCSB1V9E Battery
The social Gospel espoused by Jesus and Catholic social teaching place a heavy emphasis on the corporal works of mercy and the spiritual works of mercy, namely the support and concern for the sick, the poor and the afflicted. Sony VPCSB1V9R Battery
Sony VPCSB1Z9R BatteryChurch teaching calls for a preferential option for the poor while canon law prescribes that "The Christian faithful are also obliged to promote social justice and, mindful of the precept of the Lord, to assist the poor."[70]
The Church enumerates "corporal works of mercy" and "spiritual works of mercy" as follows:[71]
The Catholic Church is the largest non-government provider of education and medical services in the world.[9Sony VPCSB1X9E Battery
Sony VPCSB1Z9E Battery] In 2010, the Catholic Church's Pontifical Council for Pastoral Assistance to Health Care Workers said that the Church manages 26% of health care facilities in the world, including hospitals, clinics, orphanages, pharmacies and centres for those with leprosy.[72] Sony VPCSE1E1E Battery
Religious institutes for women have played a particularly prominent role in the provision of health and education services, as with orders such as the Sisters of Mercy, Little Sisters of the Poor, the Missionaries of Charity, the Sisters of St. Joseph of the Sacred Heart, the Sisters of the Blessed Sacrament and the Daughters of Charity of Saint Vincent de Paul. Sony VPCSE1J1E Battery
The Church is also actively engaged in international aid and development through organisations such as Catholic Relief Services, Caritas International, Aid to the Church in Need, refugee advocacy groups such as the Jesuit Refugee Service and community aid groups such as the Saint Vincent de Paul Society. Sony VPCSE1V9E Battery
Trinity
The Crucifixion of Christ featuring Saint Dismas and criminal Gestas by Albrecht Altdorfer, 1526
The Catholic Church holds that there is one eternal God, who exists as a mutual indwelling of three persons: God the Father; Sony VPCSE2E1E Battery
Sony VPCCB3PQE BatteryGod the Son; and God the Holy Spirit, which make up the Trinity.
Catholics believe that Jesus Christ is the second person of the Trinity, God the Son. In an event known as the Incarnation, through the power of the Holy Spirit, God became united with human nature through the conception of Christ in the womb of the Blessed Virgin Mary. Christ therefore is both fully divine and fully human. Sony VPCSE2L9E Battery
Sony VPCCB3 Battery It is taught that Christ's mission on earth included giving people his teachings and providing his example for them to follow as recorded in the four Gospels.[73]
The Church teaches that through the passion (suffering) of Christ and his crucifixion as described in the Gospels, all people have an opportunity for forgiveness and freedom from sin and so can be reconciled to God.[74Sony VPCSE2M9E Battery
Sony VPCCB2S1E Battery] The Resurrection of Jesus gained for humans a possible spiritual immortality previously denied to them because of original sin.[75] By reconciling with God and following Christ's words and deeds, an individual can enter the Kingdom of God, which is the "... reign of God over people's hearts and lives".[76] Sony VPCSE2S1E Battery
The Greek term "Christ" and the Hebrew "Messiah" both mean "anointed one", referring to the Christian belief that Jesus' death and resurrection are the fulfilment of the Old Testament's messianic prophecies.[77] Sony VPCCA1C5E Battery
Apostolicity
According to the Catechism, the Catholic Church professes to be the "sole Church of Christ", which is described in the Nicene Creed as the one, holy, catholic, and apostolic Church.[78] The church teaches that its founder is Jesus Christ, who appointed the twelve Apostles to continue his work as the Church's earliest bishops.[7Sony VPCCA1S1E Battery
Sony VPCCB2 Battery] Catholic belief holds that the Church "is the continuing presence of Jesus on earth",[80] and that all duly consecrated bishops have a lineal succession from the apostles.[81] In particular, the Bishop of Rome (the Pope), is considered the successor to the apostle Simon Peter, from whom the Pope derives his supremacy over the Church.[8Sony VPCCA2C5E Battery
Sony VPCCB Battery2] The Church is further described in the papal encyclical Mystici Corporis Christi as the Mystical Body of Christ.[83]
The Church teaches that the fullness of the "means of salvation" exists only in the Catholic Church, but the Church acknowledges that the Holy Spirit can make use of Christian communities separated from itself to "impel towards Catholic unity" and thus bring people to salvation. It teaches that anyone who is saved is saved through the Church but that people can be saved ex voto and by pre-baptismal martyrdom as well as when conditions of invincible ignorance are present,[
Sony VPCCA3S1E Battery65] although invincible ignorance in itself is not a means of salvation.
Sacraments
Main article: Sacraments of the Catholic Church
According to the Council of Trent, Christ instituted seven sacraments and entrusted them to the Church.[84] These are Baptism, Confirmation, the Eucharist, Reconciliation (Penance), Anointing of the Sick (formerly called Extreme Unction, Sony VPCCA2S0E Battery
Sony VPCCA3E1E Batteryone of the "Last Rites"), Holy Orders and Holy Matrimony. Sacraments are visible rituals that Catholics see as signs of God's presence and effective channels of God's grace to all those who receive them with the proper disposition (ex opere operato).[85] Sony VPCCA2S1E Battery
Sony VPCCA3 BatteryThe Catechism of the Catholic Church categorises the sacraments into three groups, the "sacraments of Christian initiation", "sacraments of healing" and "sacraments at the service of communion and the mission of the faithful". These groups broadly refSony SVE1511A1EW Keyboard
Sony SVE17 batteryKeyboardlect the stages of people's natural and spiritual lives which each sacrament is intended to serve.[86]
Sacraments of Christian initiation
Main article: Sacraments of Initiation
An Italian Catholic priest during the Sacrament of Baptism.
Baptism
As viewed by the Catholic Church, Baptism is the first of three sacraments of initiation as a Christian.[87] Sony SVE1511L1E Keyboard
It washes away all sins, both original sin and personal actual sins.[88] It makes a person a member of the Church.[89] As a gratuitous gift of God that requires no merit on the part of the person who is baptised, it is conferred even on children,[90] who, though they have no personal sins, need it on account of original sin.[9Sony SVE1511M1E Keyboard
Sony SVE1713Z1E Keyboard1] If a new-born child is in a danger of death, anyone—be it a doctor, a nurse, or a parent—may baptise the child.[92] Baptism marks a person permanently and cannot be repeated.[9
Sony SVE1512M1E Keyboard3] The Catholic Church recognises as valid baptisms conferred even by people who are not Catholics or Christians, provided that they intend to baptise ("to do what the Church does when she baptises") and that they use the Trinitarian baptismal formula.[94]
Confirmation
The Catholic Church sees the sacrament of confirmation as required to complete the grace given in baptism.[95Sony SVE1511P1E Keyboard
] When adults are baptised, confirmation is normally given immediately afterwards,[96] a practice followed even for infants in the Eastern Catholic Church.[97] In the West confirmation of children is delayed until they are old enough to understand or even until they are in their teens.[98Sony SVE1511V1E Keyboard
Sony SVE1512K1E Keyboard] In Western Christianity, particularly Catholicism, the sacrament is called confirmation, because it confirms and strengthens the grace of baptism; in the Eastern Church, it is called chrismation, because the essential rite is the anointing of the person with chrism, Sony SVE1511W1E Keyboard
[99] a mixture of olive oil and some perfumed substance, usually balsam, blessed by a bishop.[100] Those who receive confirmation must be in a state of grace, which for those who have reached the age of reason means that they should first be cleansed spiritually by the sacrament of Penance;
Sony SVE1512J1E Keyboard they should also have the intention of receiving the sacrament, and be prepared to show in their lives that they are Christians.[101] Sony SVE1512B1E Keyboard
Eucharist
Pope Benedict XVI celebrates the Eucharist at the canonisation of Frei Galvão in São Paulo, Brazil on 11 May 2007
For Catholics, the Eucharist is the sacrament which completes Christian initiation.[102] It is the perpetuation of the sacrifice of Jesus on the cross,[103] and a banquet in which Christ himself is consumed.[104] Sony VPCF11C4E/B Keyboard
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The Catechism of the Catholic Church states that:
The Eucharist is the source and summit of the Christian life and The Eucharist is the efficacious sign and sublime cause of that communion in the divine life and that unity of the People of God by which the Church is kept in being.[105] Sony VPCF11C5E Keyboard
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The Eucharist includes prayers and Bible readings along with the consecration of the bread and wine[106] which, according to the Church, become the body and blood of Jesus Christ.[107][108] The ceremony in which a Catholic first receives the Eucharist is known as First Communion.
A Catholic believer prays in a church in Mexico. Sony VPC-F11M1E/H Keyboard
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Sacraments of healing
The two sacraments of healing are the Sacrament of Penance and Anointing of the Sick.
Penance
The Sacrament of Penance (also called Reconciliation, Forgiveness, Confession, and Conversion[109]) exists for the conversion of those who, after baptism, separate themselves from Christ by sin.[110Sony VPC-F2 Keyboard
Sony VPCF12E1E/H Keyboard] Essential to this sacrament are acts both by the sinner (examination of conscience, contrition with a determination not to sin again, confession to a priest, and performance of some act to repair the damage caused by sin) and by the priest (determination of the act of reparation to be performed and absolution).[111] Sony VPC-F21Z1E Keyboard
Sony VPCF11Z1E/BI Keyboard Serious sins (mortal sins) must be confessed within at most a year and always before receiving Holy Communion, while confession of venial sins also is recommended.[112] The priest is bound under the severest penalties to maintain the "seal of confession", absolute secrecy about any sins revealed to him in confession.[113] Sony VPCF22J1E Keyboard
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Anointing of the Sick
While chrism is used only for the three sacraments that cannot be repeated (baptism, confirmation, ordination), a different oil is used by a priest or bishop to bless a Catholic who, because of illness or old age, has begun to be in danger of death.[11Sony VPCF22S1E Keyboard
Sony VPCF11C4E/B Keyboard4] This sacrament, known as Anointing of the Sick, is believed to give comfort, peace, courage and, if the sick person is unable to make a confession, even forgiveness of sins.[115] Although it is not reserved for those in proximate danger of death, it is often administered as one of the Last Rites. Sony VPCF22S8E Keyboard
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Sacraments at the service of communion
According to the Catechism of the Catholic Church there are two sacraments of communion directed towards the salvation of others: priesthood and marriage.[116] Sony VPCF23M1E Keyboard
Sony VPCF24M1E KeyboardWithin the general vocation to be a Christian, these two sacraments consecrate to specific mission or vocation among the people of God. Men receive the holy orders to feed the Church by the word and grace. Spouses marry so that their love may be fortified to fulfil duties of their state.[117] Sony VPCF23Q1E Keyboard
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Ordination
Holy Orders is a sacrament in three degrees or orders, episcopate (bishops), presbyterate (priests) and diaconate (deacons), which consecrates and deputes some Christians to serve the whole body by these specific titles.[118Sony VPCF13E4E Keyboard
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] The Church has defined rules on who may be ordained into the clergy. In the Latin Rite, the priesthood and diaconate are generally restricted to celibate men.[119][120] Men who are already married may be ordained in the Eastern Catholic Churches in most countries,[121Sony VPCF13E8E Keyboard
Sony VPCF13Z0E/B Keyboard] and the personal ordinariates and may become deacons even in the Western Church[119][120] (see Clerical marriage). But after becoming a Roman Catholic priest, a man may not marry (see Clerical celibacy) unless he is later formally laicised. Sony VPCF13J0E/H Keyboard
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All clergy, whether deacons, priests or bishops, may preach, teach, baptise, witness marriages and conduct funeral liturgies.[122] Only bishops and priests can administer the sacraments of the Eucharist, Reconciliation (Penance) and Anointing of the Sick.[123][124] Only bishops can administer the sacrament of Holy Orders, which ordains someone into the clergy.[125] Sony VPCF1318E/H Keyboard
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Matrimony
Marriage, understood as an indissoluble union between a man and a woman,[126] if entered into validly by any baptised man and baptised woman, is considered a sacrament by the Catholic Church.[12Sony VPCF13M1E/B Keyboard
Sony VPCF12S1E/B Keyboard7] The church does not recognise divorce as ending a valid marriage and allows state recognised divorce only as a means of protecting children or property, without allowing remarriage following such a divorce. Sony VPCF11C4E/B Keyboard
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Sony VPCF12Z1E KeyboardApart from the requirements, such as freedom of consent, that it sees as applicable to all, the church has established certain specific requirements for the validity of marriages by Catholics.[128] Failure to observe the Church's regulations, as well as defects applicable to all marriages, may be grounds for a church declaration of the invalidity of a marriage, a declaration usually referred to as an annulment.[129Sony VPCF13Z8E Keyboard
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Judgement after death
Before his resurrection from the dead, Jesus Christ grants salvation to souls by the Harrowing of Hell. Oil on canvas, by Fra Angelico circa 1430s
The Church teaches that, immediately after death, the soul of each person will receive a particular judgement from God.[130Sony VPCF13Z8E/BI Keyboard
Sony VPCY21S1E/G Keyboard] This teaching also attests to another day when Christ will sit in a universal judgement of all mankind. This final judgement, according to Church teaching, will bring an end to human history and mark the beginning of a new and better heaven and earth ruled by God in righteousness.[130Sony VPCF12S1E/B Keyboard
Sony VPCY21S1E/L Keyboard] The basis on which each person's soul is judged is detailed in the Gospel of Matthew, which lists works of mercy to be performed even to people considered "the least of Christ's brothers".[13
Sony VPCF23N1E Keyboard1] Emphasis is upon Christ's words that "Not everyone who says to me, 'Lord, Lord,' shall enter the kingdom of heaven, but he who does the will of my Father who is in heaven".[132Sony VPCF12Z1E/BI Keyboard
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According to the Catechism, "The Last Judgement will reveal even to its furthest consequences the good each person has done or failed to do during his earthly life."[132] Depending on the judgement rendered, a soul may enter one of three states of afterlife: Sony VPCF13M1E/H Keyboard
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Heaven is a time of glorious union with God and a life of unspeakable joy that lasts forever.[130]
Purgatory is a temporary condition for the purification of souls who, although saved, are not free enough from sin to enter directly into heaven.[130] Souls in purgatory may be aided in reaching heaven by the prayers of the faithful on earth and by the intercession of saints.[133] Sony VGN-NW20ZF Keyboard
Final Damnation: Finally, those who persist in living in a state of mortal sin and do not repent before death subject themselves to hell, an everlasting separation from God.[130] The Church teaches that no one is condemned to hell without having freely decided to reject God.[130] No one is predestined to hell and no one can determine whether anyone else has been condemned.[130] Sony VGN-NW24S Keyboard
Sony VGN-NS11E keyboard Catholicism teaches that through God's mercy a person can repent at any point before death and be saved.[134] Some Catholic theologians have speculated that the souls of unbaptised infants who die in original sin are assigned to limbo although this is not an official doctrine of the Church.[135] Sony VGN-NW26M Keyboard
Virgin Mary
The Blessed Virgin Mary is highly regarded in the Catholic Church, proclaiming her as Mother of God, free from original sin and an intercessor.
Main articles: Blessed Virgin Mary (Roman Catholic) and Roman Catholic Mariology
See also: Mary (mother of Jesus) Sony VGN-NW20EF Keyboard
Devotions to Mary are part of Catholic piety but are distinct from the worship of God.[136] The Church holds Mary, as Perpetual Virgin and Mother of God, in special regard.[137] Catholic beliefs concerning Mary include her Immaculate Conception without the stain of original sin and bodily assumption into heaven at the end of her life, both of which have been infallibly defined as dogma, by Pope Pius IX in 1854 and Pope Pius XII in 1950 respectively.[138] Sony VGN-NW20SF Keyboard
Mariology deals not only with her life but also her veneration in daily life, prayer and Marian art, music and architecture. Several liturgical Marian feasts are celebrated throughout the Church Year and she is honoured with many titles such as Queen of Heaven. Sony VGN-NW24EG Keyboard
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Sony VGN-NS30Z keyboardPope Paul VI called her Mother of the Church because, by giving birth to Christ, she is considered to be the spiritual mother to each member of the Body of Christ.[138] Because of her influential role in the life of Jesus, prayers and devotions such as the Hail Mary, the Rosary, the Salve Regina and the Memorare are common Catholic practices.[139] Sony VGN-NW24MG Keyboard
The Church has affirmed certain Marian apparitions, such as at Lourdes, Fátima, and Guadalupe.[140] Pilgrimages to these sites are popular Catholic devotions.[141]
History
Main article: History of the Catholic Church
See also: Early history of Christianity and Historiography of early Christianity
This detail of a fresco (1481–82) by Pietro Perugino in the Sistine Chapel shows Jesus giving the keys of heaven to Saint Peter.
Apostolic period
Main article: Apostolic Age
Catholic tradition and doctrine hold that the Catholic Church is the one true church[142][143][144][145] founded by Jesus Christ in the 1st century AD in Judea within the Roman Empire.[146][1Sony VGN-NW26EG Keyboard
Sony VGN-NS20M keyboard47] The New Testament records Jesus' activities and teaching, his appointment of the twelve Apostles and his instructions to them to continue his work.[148][149]
The Catholic Church teaches that the coming of the Holy Spirit upon the apostles, in an event known as Pentecost, signalled the beginning of the public ministry of the Catholic Church.[81Sony VGN-NW26JG Keyboard
Sony VGN-NS20J keyboard Catholic doctrine teaches that the contemporary Catholic Church is the continuation of this early Christian community. It interprets the Confession of Peter found in the Gospel of Matthew as Christ's designation of Saint Peter the Apostle and his successors, the Bishops of Rome to be the temporal head of his Church, a doctrine known as apostolic succession. Sony VGN-NW20SF Keyboard
Spread throughout the Roman Empire
Main article: Early centers of Christianity
Conditions in the Roman Empire facilitated the spread of new ideas. The empire's well-defined network of roads and waterways allowed for easier travel, while the Pax Romana made it safe to travel from one region to another. Sony VGN-NW21MF/P Keyboard
Sony VGN-NS11J keyboard The government had encouraged inhabitants, especially those in urban areas, to learn Greek as the common language, which allowed ideas to be more easily expressed and understood.[15
Sony VGN-NS10L keyboard0] Unlike most religions in the Roman Empire, however, Christianity required its adherents to renounce all other gods, a practice adopted from Judaism (see Idolatry). The Christians' refusal to join pagan celebrations meant they were unable to participate in much of public life,
Sony VGN-NS10E keyboardwhich caused non-Christians—including government authorities—to fear that the Christians were angering the gods and thereby threatening the peace and prosperity of the Empire. The resulting persecutions were a defining feature of Christian self-understanding until Christianity was legalised in the 4th century.[151] Sony VGN-NW31EF Keyboard
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In 313, the struggles of the Early Church were lessened by the legalisation of Christianity by the Emperor Constantine I. In 380, Christianity became the state church of the Roman Empire by the decree of the Emperor,
Sony PCG-51211M Keyboardwhich would persist until the fall of the Western Roman Empire and, later, with the Eastern Roman Empire until the Fall of Constantinople. During this time (the period of the Seven Ecumenical Councils) there were considered five primary sees according to Eusebius: Rome, Constantinople, Antioch, Jerusalem and Alexandria, known as the Pentarchy.
Late Antiquity
In the centuries after the destruction of the Western Roman Empire, Western Christianity was a major factor in the preservation of classical civilisation, especially classical art and literacy (see Illuminated manuscript).[15Sony PCG-41111M Keyboard
Sony PCG-51111M Keyboard2] Through his Rule, Benedict of Nursia (c.480–543), the founder of Western monasticism exerted an enormous influence on European culture through the appropriation of the monastic spiritual heritage of the early Church and, with the spread of the Benedictine tradition, through the preservation and transmission of ancient culture. Sony PCG-41112M Keyboard
Sony PCG-51212M KeyboardDuring this period, monastic Ireland became a centre of learning and early Irish missionaries such as St Columbanus and St Columba spread Christianity and established monasteries across continental Europe.[153]
In Eastern Christianity, the Byzantine Empire preserved Orthodoxy well after the massive invasions of Islam in the mid-7th century. The invasions of Islam devastated three of the five Patriarchal sees, capturing Jerusalem firstSony PCG-81111M Keyboard
Sony PCG-31311M Keyboard then Alexandria and then, finally, in the mid-8th century, Antioch. The whole period of the next five centuries was dominated by the struggle between Christianity and Islam throughout the Mediterranean Basin. Sony PCG-81112M Keyboard
Sony PCG-21313M KeyboardThe battles of Poitiers and Toulouse preserved the Catholic tradition even though Rome itself was ravaged in 850 and Constantinople was besieged.
Medieval, Renaissance and Baroque periods
The Catholic Church was the dominant influence on Western civilisation from late antiquity to the dawn of the modern age.[154] It was the primary sponsor of Romanesque, Gothic, Renaissance, Mannerist and Baroque styles in art, architecture and music. Sony PCG-81212M Keyboard
[155] Renaissance figures such as Raphael, Michelangelo, Leonardo da Vinci, Botticelli, Fra Angelico, Tintoretto, Titian, Bernini and Caravaggio are examples of the numerous visual artists sponsored by the Church.[156] Sony PCG-81113M Keyboard
In the eleventh century, Gregorian Reform led to the Investiture Controversy between the church and the Holy Roman Emperors, over whether secular powers or the church itself had the sole power to appoint bishops and popes. Sony PCG-5S1M Keyboard
The efforts of Hildebrand of Sovana led to the creation of the College of Cardinals to elect new popes, starting with Pope Alexander II in the papal election of 1061. When Alexander II died, Hildebrand was elected to succeed him, as Pope Gregory VII. The basic election system of the College of Cardinals which Gregory VII helped establish has continued to function into the twenty-first century. Sony PCG-7171M Keyboard
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In the early 13th century mendicant orders were founded by Francis of Assisi and Dominic de Guzmán. The studia conventuale and studia generale of the mendicant orders played a large role in the transformation of Church sponsored cathedral schools and palace schools, such as that of Charlemagne at Aachen, into the prominent universities of Europe.[ Sony PCG-5P1M Keyboard
Sony PCG-7181M Keyboard57] Scholastic theologians and philosophers such as the Dominican priest Thomas Aquinas studied and taught at these studia. Aquinas' Summa Theologica was an intellectual milestone in its synthesis of the legacy of Ancient Greek philosophers such as Plato and Aristotle with the content of Christian revelation.[158] Sony PCG-5N2M Keyboard
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Doctrinal disputes and schisms
See also: Criticism of Catholic actions in history
Martin Luther initiated the Protestant Reformation against the Catholic Church in 1517
In the 11th century, strained relations between the primarily Greek church and the Latin Church separated them in the East–West Schism, partially due to conflicts over papal authority. The Fourth Crusade and the sacking of Constantinople by renegade crusaders proved the final breach. In the 16th century, in response to the Protestant Reformation, the Catholic Church engaged in a process of substantial reform and renewal, known as the Counter-Reformation.[1Sony PCG-3C2M Keyboard
Sony PCG-7151M Keyboard59] In subsequent centuries, Catholicism spread widely across the world despite experiencing a reduction in its hold on European populations due to the growth of religious scepticism during and after the Enlightenment.
In 1854 Pope Pius IX with the support of the overwhelming majority of Roman Catholic bishops, whom he had consulted from 1851 to 1853, proclaimed the dogma of the Immaculate Conception.[160
Sony PCG-7143M Keyboard] In 1870, the First Vatican Council affirmed the doctrine of papal infallibility when exercised in specifically defined pronouncements.[161][162] Controversy over this and other issues resulted in a breakaway movement called the Old Catholic Church.[163]
Second Vatican Council Sony PCG-7195M Keyboard
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The Second Vatican Council in the 1960s introduced the most significant changes to Catholic practices since the Council of Trent four centuries before. Initiated by Pope John XXIII, this ecumenical council modernised the practices of the Catholic Church, allowing the Mass to be said in the vernacular (local language) and encouraging "fully conscious, and active participation in liturgical celebrations."[164Sony PCG-7196M Keyboard
] It intended to engage the Church more closely with the present world (aggiornamento), which was described by its advocates as an "opening of the windows".[165] In addition to changes in the liturgy, it led to changes to the Church's approach to ecumenism,[16Sony PCG-7192M Keyboard
Sony PCG-7154M Keyboard6] and a call to improved relations with non-Christian religions, especially Judaism, in its document Nostra Aetate.[167]
The Council, however, generated significant controversy in implementing its reforms; proponents of the "Spirit of Vatican II" such as Swiss theologian Hans Küng claimed Vatican II had "not gone far enough" to change church policies.[1Sony PCG-7194M Keyboard
Sony PCG-7153M Keyboard68] Traditionalist Catholics, such as Archbishop Marcel Lefebvre, however, strongly criticised the council, arguing that the council's liturgical reforms led "to the destruction of the Holy Sacrifice of the Mass and the sacraments," among other issues.[169] Sony PCG-7144M Keyboard
New evangelisation
Pope John Paul II with U.S. President Ronald Reagan and his wife, Nancy, in 1982.
Pope John Paul II sought to evangelise an increasingly secular world. He instituted World Youth Day as a "worldwide encounter with the Pope" for young people which is now held every two to three years.[ Sony PCG-7141M Keyboard
Sony PCG-7151M Keyboard170] He travelled more than any other pope, visiting 129 countries,[171] and used television and radio as means of spreading the Church's teachings. In 2012, the 50th anniversary of Vatican II, the Church called a new Synod to discuss re-evangelising lapsed Catholics in the developed world. Sony PCG-3F1M Keyboard
Contemporary issues
Main article: History of the Catholic Church since 1962
See also: Criticism of the Catholic Church
Social justice issues
Main articles: Catholic social teaching and Catholic Church and health care
In 1978, Pope John Paul II, formerly archbishop of Kraków in then-Communist Poland, became the first non-Italian Pope in 455 years. Sony PCG-3H1M Keyboard
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His 27-year pontificate was one of the longest in history.[172] Mikhail Gorbachev, the president of the Soviet Union, credited the Polish pope with hastening the fall of Communism in Europe.[173]
The Saint Vincent de Paul Society building in Wagga Wagga, Australia. Catholic community groups such as these provide relief aid for the sick, the poor, helpless, destitute and needy.
The Catholic nun Mother Teresa of Calcutta was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1979 for her humanitarian work among India's poor.[1Sony PCG-3E1M Keyboard
Sony PCG-71911M Keyboard74] Bishop Carlos Filipe Ximenes Belo won the same award in 1996 for "work towards a just and peaceful solution to the conflict in East Timor".[175]
Sexuality and gender issues
Further information: Catholic Church and women, Catholicism and sexuality, and Homosexuality and Roman Catholicism Sony PCG-3G2M Keyboard
Soon after the close of the Second Vatican Council, Church teachings about sexuality became an issue of increasing controversy due to changing cultural attitudes in the Western world (see the sexual revolution). Sony PCG-61211M Keyboard
The Church teaches that sexual intercourse should only take place between a married man and woman, and should be without the use of artificial birth control or contraception. In his encyclical Humanae Vitae[176] (1968), Sony PCG-71211M Keyboard
Pope Paul VI firmly rejected all artificial contraception, thus contradicting dissenters in the Church that saw the birth control pill as an ethically justifiable method of contraception, though he permitted the regulation of births by means of natural family planning. Sony PCG-71213M Keyboard
Sony PCG-61611M Keyboard This teaching was continued especially by John Paul II in his encyclical Evangelium Vitae, where he clarified the Church's position on contraception, abortion and euthanasia by condemning them as part of a "culture of death" and calling instead for a "culture of life".[177]
The Church teaches that homosexual inclinations are "objectively disordered"[178] and so homosexual behaviour is "contrary to the natural law".[179] The Church teaches that people who have homosexual tendencies are called to live chastely.[180Sony PCG-71212M Keyboard
Sony PCG-71D14M Keyboard] Because of these teachings, as well as its teaching that marriage is between one man and one woman,[181] the Catholic Church firmly opposes same-sex marriage.
In religious vocations, Catholic women and men are ascribed different roles—men serve as deacons, priests, friars, monks, Sony PCG-71312M Keyboard
Sony PCG-71511M Keyboard brothers, abbots or in episcopal positions while women serve as nuns, religious sisters or abbesses. Monks and brothers often house together in monasteries while nuns and sisters may house themselves in convents—though an abbey may host a religious community of men or women. In other roles, Sony PCG-71311M Keyboard
Sony PCG-71411M Keyboardthe Church does not distinguish between men and women, who may be equally recognised as saints, Doctors of the Church, catechists in schools, altar servers, Extraordinary ministers of Holy Communion at Mass, or as readers (lectors) during the liturgy. Sony PCG-71313M Keyboard
Women constitute the great majority of members of the consecrated life.[40] While Holy Orders are reserved for men, Catholic women have played diverse roles in the life of the church, with religious institutes providing a formal space for their participation and convents providing spaces for their self-government,
Sony PCG-7171M Keyboardprayer and influence through many centuries. Religious sisters and nuns have been extensively involved in developing and running the Church's worldwide health and education service networks.[182]
Efforts in support of the ordination of women led to several rulings by the Roman Curia or Popes against the proposal, as in Declaration on the Question of the Admission of Women to the Ministerial Priesthood (1976), Mulieris Dignitatem (1988) and Ordinatio Sacerdotalis (1994). According to the latest ruling, found in Ordinatio Sacerdotalis, Sony PCG-5P2m Keyboard
Sony PCG-7185M KeyboardPope John Paul II concluded, "I declare that the Church has no authority whatsoever to confer priestly ordination on women and that this judgment is to be definitively held by all the Church's faithful."[18Sony PCG-61212M Keyboard
3] In defiance of these rulings, opposition groups such as Roman Catholic Womenpriests have performed alleged ordination ceremonies (with, reputedly, an ordaining male Catholic bishop in the first few instances) which, according to canon law, are both illicit and invalid and considered mere simulations[184] of the sacrament of Ordination.[1Sony PCG-5R1M Keyboard
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85][note 12] The Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith responded by issuing a statement clarifying that any Catholic bishops involved in ordination ceremonies for women, as well as the women themselves if they were Catholic, would automatically receive the penalty of excommunication (latae sententiae, literally "sentence passed", i.e. automatically), citing canon 1378 of canon law and other church laws.[186] Sony PCG-5T1M Keyboard
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Sex abuse cases
Main article: Catholic sex abuse cases
In the 1990s and 2000s, the issue of sexual abuse of minors by Catholic clergy became the subject of media coverage and public debate in countries around the world. Sony PCG-5T2M Keyboard
Sony PCG-7183M KeyboardThe Church was criticised for its handling of abuse complaints when it became known that some bishops had shielded accused priests, transferring them to other pastoral assignments where some continued to commit sexual offences. Sony PCG-7181M Keyboard
Sony PCG-7182M Keyboard In response to the scandal, the Church has established formal procedures to prevent abuse, encourage reporting of any abuse that occurs and to handle such reports promptly, although groups representing victims have disputed their effectivene