The Spanish Empire
The Spanish Empire
The Spanish Empire (Spanish: Imperio español) comprised territories and colonies administered by the Spanish Crown in Europe, the Americas, Africa, Asia and Oceania. It originated during the Age of Exploration as one of the first global empires. Under the Spanish Habsburgs, Spain reached the peak of its political and economic power[Levono Ideapad G560 Keyboard
1] when its empire became the foremost global power. In conjunction with the Portuguese Empire, the Spanish Empire's establishment in the 15th century ushered in the modern global era and the rise of European dominance in global affairs. Levono Ideapad Z570 Keyboard
Levono Ideapad Y570D KeyboardSpain's territorial reach beyond Europe spanned five centuries, from the first voyages to the Americas in 1492 until the loss of its last African colonies in 1975.
The land of the Iberian peninsula was commonly called Hispania since Roman times and during the Visigothic Kingdom. The process of the Reconquista produced the emergence of four Christian realms: Castile, the Crown of Aragon, Navarre and Portugal. Levono Ideapad Z560 Keyboard
The dynastic union between the Crown of Castile (which came to include the kingdom of Navarre in 1515) and the Crown of Aragon,[2Levono Ideapad Y560P Keyboard
Levono Ideapad Z565 Keyboard] in the Catholic Monarchs' time, initiated a political authoritarian system in force until the beginning of the eighteenth century labelled as Hispanic monarchy: the Spanish sovereign acted as monarch in a unitary manner[3] Levono Ideapad Y560 Keyboard
over all his territories through a polisynodial system of Councils, but his power as king or lord varied from one territory to another one, since each territory retained its own particular administration and juridical configuration. The unity did not mean uniformity.[4] Levono Ideapad V570A Keyboard
According to this political configuration, independently of the denominations [5] given to the "dynastic union"[6][7] between 1580 and 1640, the scholars argue that the Portuguese Empire kept its own administration and jurisdiction over its territory as the other kingdoms and realms ruled by the Spanish Habsburgs.[8] Levono Ideapad V570 Keyboard
Levono Ideapad Y570 Keyboard Nevertheless, some historians assert that Portugal was a kingdom which formed part of the Spanish Monarchy at that time;[9][10][11][12][13] while others draw a clear distinction between the Portuguese and the Spanish Empires.[14][15] Levono Ideapad V570C Keyboard
The Spanish Empire included the dominions of the Spanish monarch in the Americas, Asia, Oceania and Africa, but some disputes exist as to which European territories are to be counted. For instance, normally the Habsburg Netherlands are included, as they were part of the possessions of the King of Spain,
Levono Ideapad V570A Keyboardwere governed by Spanish officials, and were defended by Spanish troops. However, authors like the British historian Henry Kamen contend that these territories were not fully integrated into a Spanish state and instead formed part of the wider Habsburg possessions.
Levono Ideapad G575 Keyboard Some historians use "Habsburg" and "Spanish" almost interchangeably when referring to the dynastic inheritance of Charles V or Philip II.
Origins[edit source | editbeta]
Canary islands[edit source | editbeta]
During the 15th century, Castile and Portugal became territorial and commercial rivals in the Atlantic western zone. Portugal obtained several Papal bulls which acknowledged Portuguese control over the discovered territories, Levono Ideapad B575 Keyboard
Levono Ideapad B570A Keyboardbut Castile also obtained from the Pope the safeguard of its rights to the Canary Islands with the bulls Romani Pontifex dated 6 November 1436 and Dominatur Dominus dated 30 April 1437.[16HP Probook 4410S Keyboard
HP Probook 5330M Keyboard] The Conquest of the Canary Islands, inhabited by Guanche people, began in 1402 under the reign of Henry III of Castile, authorizing under feudal agreement to Norman noblemen Jean de Béthencourt. HP Probook 4410T Keyboard
HP Probook 5320M Keyboard The conquest only finished when the armies of the Crown of Castille won, after long and bloody wars, the islands of Gran Canaria (1478–1483), La Palma (1492–1493) and Tenerife (1494–1496). HP Probook 4411S Keyboard
The first colonial war and world’s partition[edit source | editbeta]
See also: Battle of Guinea, Palos de la Frontera, and Treaty of Alcáçovas
The Portuguese tried vainly to keep secret about their discovery of the Gold Coast (1471) in the Gulf of Guinea, but the news quickly caused a huge gold rush. Chronicler Pulgar wrote that the fame of the treasures of Guinea «spread around the ports of Andalusia in such way that everybody tried to go there».[1HP Probook 4413S Keyboard
HP Probook 5310M Keyboard7] Worthless trinkets, Moorish textiles, and above all, shells from the Canary and Cape Verde islands were exchanged for gold, slaves, ivory and Guinea pepper.
The War of the Castilian Succession (1475–79) provided the Catholic Monarchs with the opportunity not only to attack the main source of the Portuguese power, but also to take possession of this lucrative commerce. HP Probook 4414S Keyboard
The Crown officially organized this trade with Guinea: every caravel had to get a government license and to pay a tax on one-fifth of their profits (a receiver of the customs of Guinea stayed at Seville since 1475 – the ancestor of the future and famous Casa de Contratación).[18] HP Probook 4416S Keyboard
The Castilian fleets fought all over the Atlantic Ocean, occupying temporarily the Cape Verde islands (1476), conquering the city of Ceuta, Morocco, in 1476 (nevertheless it was retaken by the Portuguese),[19][20HP Probook 4510S Keyboard
HP Probook 4725S Keyboard] and even attacked the Azores islands, being defeated at Praia.[21][22] But the turning point of the war came in 1478, when a Castilian fleet sent by Ferdinand to conquer Gran Canaria lost men and ships to the Portuguese which expelled it,[23][24] and above all, a large Castilian armada -full of Gold- was entirely captured in the decisive battle of Guinea.[25] HP Probook 4525S Keyboard
HP Probook 4720S Keyboard [26] The Treaty of Alcáçovas (4 September 1479), while assuring the Castilian throne to the Catholic Monarchs, reflected the Castilian naval and colonial defeat:[27][28
HP Probook 4715S Keyboard] «War with Castile broke out waged savagely in the Gulf [of Guinea] until the Castilian fleet of thirty-five sail was defeated there in 1478. As a result of this naval victory, at the Treaty of Alcáçovas in 1479 Castile, while retaining her rights in the Canaries, recognized the Portuguese monopoly of fishing and navigation along the whole West Africa coast and Portugal’s rights over the Madeira, HP Probook 4530S Keyboard
HP Probook 4535S KeyboardAzores and Cape Verde islands [plus the right to conquer the Kingdom of Fez ].».[29] The treaty delimited the spheres of influence of the two countries,[30] establishing the principle of the Mare clausum.[ Sony PCG-41111M Keyboard
Sony PCG-81412M Keyboard31] It was confirmed in 1481 by the Pope Sixtus IV, in the papal bull Æterni regis (dated on 21 June 1481).[32] However, this experience would prove to be profitable for the future Spa Sony PCG-41112M Keyboard
nish overseas expansion, because as the Spaniards were excluded from the lands discovered or to be discovered from the Canaries southward[33] –and consequently from the road to India around Africa-[34] they sponsored the Columbus’ voyage towards West (1492) Sony PCG-81111M Keyboard
Sony PCG-81411M Keyboard in search of Asia and its spices.[35] Thus, the limitations imposed by Alcáçovas were overcome and a new and more balanced world’s division would be reached at Tordesilhas between both superpowers.[36] Sony PCG-81112M Keyboard
Treaty of Tordesillas[edit source | editbeta]
Columbus and the Catholic Monarchs (The return of Columbus to Spain).
Seven months before the treaty of Alcaçovas, King John II of Aragon died, and his son Ferdinand II of Aragon inherited the thrones of the Crown of Aragon; therefore, a personal union was created between the Crown of Aragon and Castile, each with their own administrations, but ruled by a common monarchy.[37] Sony PCG-81113M Keyboard
After a war of 10 years, the Granada War, in 1492, the Catholic Monarchs drove out the last Moorish king of Granada. After their victory, the Catholic Monarchs negotiated with Christopher Columbus, a Genoese sailor attempting to reach Cipangu by sailing west. Sony PCG-81313M Keyboard
Sony PCG-81311M Keyboard Castile was already engaged in a race of exploration with Portugal to reach the Far East by sea when Columbus made his bold proposal to Isabella. In the Capitulations of Santa Fe, dated on 17 April 1492, Christopher Columbus obtained from the Catholic Monarchs his appointment as viceroy and governor in the lands already discovered[38] and that of he might discover thenceforth;[39][ Sony PCG-21313M Keyboard
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40] thereby, it was the first document to establish an administrative organization in the Indies.[41] Columbus' discoveries inaugurated the Spanish colonization of the Americas. Spain's claim[42] to these lands was solidified by the Inter caetera papal bull dated 4 May 1493, Sony PCG-31311M Keyboard
Sony PCG-5N2M Keyboardand Dudum siquidem on 26 September 1493, which vested the sovereignty of the territories discovered and to be discovered.
Since the Portuguese wanted to keep the line of demarcation of Alcaçovas running east and west along a latitude south of Cape Bojador, a compromise was worked out which was incorporated in the Treaty of Tordesillas dated on 7 June 1494, Sony PCG-51512M Keyboard
in which the globe was split into two hemispheres dividing Spanish and Portuguese claims. These actions gave Spain exclusive rights to establish colonies in all of the New World from north to south (except Brazil), Sony PCG-51212M Keyboard
Sony PCG-5P1M Keyboard as well as the easternmost parts of Asia. The treaty of Tordesillas was confirmed by Pope Julius II in the bull Ea quae pro bono pacis on 24 January 1506.[43] Spain's expansion and colonization was driven by economic influences, Sony PCG-51111M Keyboard
Sony PCG-7171M Keyboard a yearning to improve national prestige, and a desire to spread Catholicism into the New World.
On the other hand, the treaty of Tordesillas[44] and the treaty of Cintra (18 September 1509)[45] established the limits of the Kingdom of Fez for Portugal, and outside of these limits the Castilian expansion was allowed, beginning with the conquest of Melilla in 1497. Sony PCG-51112M Keyboard
Struggles for Italy[edit source | editbeta]
The death of French general Gaston de Foix at the Battle of Ravenna (1512).
The Catholic Monarchs had developed a strategy of marriages for their children in order to isolate their long-time enemy: France. Sony PCG-51211M Keyboard
Sony PCG-5S1M KeyboardThe Spanish princes married the heirs of Portugal, England and the House of Habsburg. Following the same strategy, the Catholic Monarchs decided to support the Catalan-Aragonese house of Naples against Charles VIII of France in the Italian Wars from 1494. As King of Aragon, Ferdinand had been involved in the struggle against France and Venice for control of Italy; Sony PCG-7195M Keyboard
Sony PCG-7186M Keyboard these conflicts became the center of Ferdinand's foreign policy as king. In these battles, which established the supremacy of the Spanish Tercios in European battlefields, the forces of the kings of Spain acquired a reputation for invincibility that would last until the mid-17th century. Sony PCG-7196M Keyboard
After the death of Queen Isabella, Ferdinand, as Spain's sole monarch, adopted a more aggressive policy than he had as Isabella's husband, enlarging Spain's sphere of influence in Italy and against France. Ferdinand's first deployment of Spanish forces came in the War of the League of Cambrai against Venice, Sony PCG-7192M Keyboard
where the Spanish soldiers distinguished themselves on the field alongside their French allies at the Battle of Agnadello (1509). Only a year later, Ferdinand became part of the Holy League against France, seeing a chance at taking both Milan — to which he held a dynastic claim – and Navarre.
Sony PCG-7181M KeyboardThis war was less of a success than the war against Venice, and in 1516, France agreed to a truce that left Milan in its control and recognized Spanish control of Upper Navarre.
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The Indias, islands and mainland of the ocean sea[edit source | editbeta]
Upon the death of Ferdinand the Catholic, the lordship of the Spanish Indies became Kingdoms of the Indies.
The Papal Bull Inter caetera of 1493 vested government and jurisdiction of newly found lands in the kings of Castile and León and their successors.[46][47] Sony PCG-7194M Keyboard
Sony PCG-7151M Keyboard According to the Concord of Segovia of 1475, Ferdinand was mentioned in the bulls as king of Castile and upon his death the title of the Indies was to be incorporated into the Crown of Castile.[48] The territories were incorporated by the Catholic Monarchs as jointly held assets.[49][50][51] Sony PCG-7144M Keyboard
Sony PCG-7143M Keyboard
In the 1506 Treaty of Villafáfila king Ferdinand the Catholic renounced not only the government of Castile in favour of his son-in-law Philip I of Castile but also the lordship of the Indies, withholding a half of the income of the kingdoms of the Indies.[5Sony PCG-7141M Keyboard
Sony PCG-7162M Keyboard2] Joanna of Castile and Philip immediately added to their titles the kingdoms of Indies, Islands and Mainland of the Ocean Sea. But the Treaty of Villafáfila did not hold for long because of the death of Philip; Ferdinand returned as regent of Castile and as "lord the Indies".[48]
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According to the domain granted by Papal bulls and the wills of queen Isabella of Castile in 1504 and king Ferdinand of Aragon in 1516, such property become definitely a property of the Crown of Castile. This arrangement was ratified by successive monarchs, beginning with Charles I in 1519[49
Sony PCG-7153M Keyboard in a decree that spelt out the juridical status of the new overseas territories.[53]
The lordship of the discovery territories conveyed by papal bulls was private as public to kings of Castile and León. The political condition of the Indias were to transform from "Lordship" of the Catholic monarchs to "Kingdoms" for the heirs of Castile. ] Sony PCG-7151M Keyboard Although the Alexandrine Bulls gave full, free and omnipotent power to Catholic Monarchs,[54] they did not rule them as a private property but as a public property through the public bodies and authorities from Castile,[55] Sony PCG-3F1M Keyboard
Sony PCG-71911M Keyboardand when those territories were incorporated into the Crown of Castile the royal power was subject to the laws of Castile.[56]
First settlements in America[edit source | editbeta]
The Capitulations of Santa Fe granted excessive power to Columbus, and the Catholic Monarchs reacted when Colon discovered the mainland in 1498.[5Sony PCG-3H1M Keyboard
Sony PCG-3J1M Keyboard
Sony PCG-71811M Keyboard7] They learned of his discovery in May 1499, and, taking advantage of a revolt against Columbus in La Española, they appointed Francisco de Bobadilla as governor of the Indies with civil and criminal jurisdiction over the lands discovered by Columbus. He, however, was soon replaced by Nicolás de Ovando in September 1501.[58Sony PCG-3C1M Keyboard
Sony PCG-61611M Keyboard] Thenceforth the Crown could authorize to individuals voyages to discover territories in the Indies with previous license,[59] and since 1503, the monopoly of the Crown was assured by the Casa de Contratación at Seville. But the successors of Columbus litigated against the Crown until 1536[60][6Sony PCG-3E1M Keyboard
Sony PCG-61511M Keyboard1] for the fulfillment of the Capitulations of Santa Fe in the pleitos colombinos.
Spanish territories in the New World around 1515.
In metropolitan Spain, the direction of the issues of the Indies was taken over by the Bishop Fonseca[62][63] between 1493 and 1516,[64] and again between 1518 and 1524, after a brief period of Jean le Sauvage.[65] Since 1504 the figure of the secretary was added, so then between 1504 and 1507 Gaspar de Gricio took charge,[66] between 1508 and 1518 Lope de Conchillos followed him,[67
Sony PCG-71D14M Keyboard] and since 1519, Francisco de los Cobos.[68] In 1511, the Junta of The Indies was constituted as a standing committee belonging to the Council of Castile to address issues of the Indies,[69] and this junta constituted the origin of the Council of the Indies in 1524.[70Sony PCG-3G2M Keyboard
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]
Following the settlement of Hispaniola which was successful towards the end of the 15th century, the colonists began searching elsewhere to begin new settlements. Those from the less prosperous Hispaniola were eager to search for new success in a new settlement. From there Juan Ponce de León conquered Puerto Rico and Diego Velázquez took Cuba. Sony PCG-71211M Keyboard
In 1508, the Board of Navigators met in Burgos concurred the need to colonize the mainland, that which was entrusted to Alonso de Ojeda and Diego de Nicuesa as governors subordinated to the governor of Hispaniola,[71Sony PCG-71213M Keyboard
Sony PCG-71511M Keyboard] who was the newly appointed Diego Columbus,[72][73] with the same legal authority that Ovando.[74] The first settlement on the mainland was Santa María la Antigua del Darién in Castilla de Oro (now Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panama and Colombia), settled by Vasco Núñez de Balboa in 1510.
Sony PCG-71411M KeyboardIn 1513, Balboa crossed the Isthmus of Panama, and led the first European expedition to see the Pacific Ocean from the West coast of the New World. In an action with enduring historical import, Balboa claimed the Pacific Ocean and all the lands adjoining it for the Spanish Crown.[75]
The judgment of Seville of May 1511 recognized the viceregal title to Diego Columbus but limited to Hispaniola and to the islands discovered by his father, Christopher Columbus,[76] nevertheless his power was limited by royal officers and magistrates[7Sony PCG-71212M Keyboard
7][78] constituting a dual regime of government.[79] Therefore, the king Ferdinand II of Aragon as regent of his daughter the queen Joanna separated the territories of mainland, designated as Castilla de Oro,[80] from the viceroy of Hispaniola, establishing as General Lieutenant to Pedrarias Dávila in 1513[8Sony PCG-71312M Keyboard
1] with functions similar to those of a viceroy, remaining Balboa subordinated as governing of Panama and Coiba[82][83] on the Pacific Coast,[84] and that after his death returned to Castilla de Oro. The territory of Castilla de Oro did not include either Veragua (which was comprised approximately between the river Chagres[
Sony PCG-71313M Keyboard5] and cape Gracias a Dios[86]), due to this territory was subject to a lawsuit between the Crown and Diego Columbus, or the region farther north, towards the Yucatán, explored by Yáñez Pinzón and Solís in 1508–1509,[87] 8Sony PCG-71311M Keyboarddue to its remoteness.[88] The conflicts of the viceroy Columbus with the royal officers and with the Audiencia, created in 1511,[89][90] caused his return to the Peninsula in 1515. Sony PCG-5P2m Keyboard
Campaigns in Africa[edit source | editbeta]
After the conquest of Melilla in 1497, the Spanish expansionist policy in North Africa was developed during the regency of Ferdinand the Catholic in Castile, stimulated by the Cardinal Cisneros, Sony PCG-5R1M Keyboard
Sony PCG-7171M Keyboardonce the Reconquista in the Iberian Peninsula was finished. That way, several towns and outposts in the North African coast were conquered and occupied by Castile: Mazalquivir (1505), Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera (1508), Oran (1509), Algiers (1510), Bugia (1510), and Tripoli (1511). Sony PCG-5R2M Keyboard
Sony PCG-7186M KeyboardIn the Atlantic coast, Spain took possession of the outpost of Santa Cruz de Mar Pequeña (1476) with support from the Canary Islands, and it was retained until 1525 with the consent of the treaty of Cintra (1509). Sony PCG-5T1M Keyboard
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The Spanish Habsburgs: The Sun Never Sets (1516–1700)[edit source | editbeta]
The 16th and 17th centuries are sometimes called "the Golden Age of Spain" (in Spanish, Siglo de Oro). As a result of the marriage politics of the Reyes Católicos, their Habsburg grandson Charles inherited the Castilian empire in America, Sony PCG-5T2M Keyboard
Sony PCG-7184M Keyboardthe Possessions of the Crown of Aragon in the Mediterranean (including a large portion of modern Italy), lands in Germany, the Low Countries, Franche-Comté, and Austria (this one, along with the rest of hereditary Habsburg domains was almost immediately transferred to Ferdinand, the Emperor's brother). Sony PCG-7181M Keyboard
While not directly an inheritance, Charles was elected emperor of the Holy Roman Empire after the death of his grandfather Emperor Maximilian thanks to prodigious bribes paid the prince-electors. Charles became the most powerful man in Europe, Sony PCG-7182M Keyboard
Sony PCG-7183M Keyboard his rule stretching over an empire in Europe unrivalled in extent until the Napoleonic era. It was often said during this time that it was the empire on which the sun never set. This sprawling overseas empire of the Spanish Golden Age was controlled, not from inland Valladolid, but from Seville. Sony VPCEE2M1E keyboard
The Castilian Empire abroad was initially a disappointment. It did stimulate some trade and industry, but the trading opportunities encountered were limited. Matters began to change in the 1520s with the large-scale extraction of silver from the rich deposits of Mexico's Guanajuato region,
Sony 9Z.N5CSW.A0U Keyboardbut it was the opening of the silver mines in Mexico's Zacatecas and Potosí in Upper Peru (modern-day Bolivia) in 1546 that became legendary. During the 16th century, Spain held the equivalent of US$1.5 trillion (1990 terms) in gold and silver received from New Spain. Ultimately, Sony VPCEE2S1E keyboard
however, these imports diverted investment away from other forms of industry and contributed to inflation in Spain in the last decades of the 16th century: "I learnt a proverb here", said a French traveler in 1603: Sony VPCEE3E0E keyboard
"Everything is dear in Spain except silver".[91] This situation was aggravated by the loss of much of the commercial and artisan classes with the expulsions of the Jews (1492) and Moriscos (1609). The vast imports of silver ultimately made Spain overly dependent on foreign sources of raw materials and manufactured goods.[citation needed] Sony VPCEE3J0E keyboard
The wealthy preferred to invest their fortunes in public debt (juros), which were backed by these silver imports, rather than in production of manufactures and the improvement of agriculture. This helped perpetuate the medieval aristocratic prejudice that saw manual work as dishonorable long after this attitude had started to decline in other west European countries. Sony VPCEE3Z0E keyboard
The silver and gold whose circulation helped facilitate the economic and social revolutions in the Low Countries, France and England and other parts of Europe helped stifle them in Spain. The problems caused by inflation were discussed by scholars at the School of Salamanca and arbitristas but they had no impact on the Habsburg government.[citation needed] Sony VPCEE3S1E kseyboard
The Habsburg dynasty spent the Castilian and American riches in wars across Europe on behalf of Habsburg interests, defaulted on their debt several times, and left Spain bankrupt several times. These problems led to a number of revolts across his empire, notably that of Castilian rebels in the Revolt of the Comuneros, but these rebellions were put down. Sony VPCEE keyboard
The Habsburgs' political goals were several:
Access to the resources of the Americas (gold, silver, sugar) and products of Asia (porcelain, spices, silk)
Undermining the power of France and containing it in its eastern borders.
Maintaining Catholic Habsburg hegemony in Germany, defending Catholicism against the Protestant Reformation. Charles attempted to quell the Reformation at the Diet of Worms but Martin Luther refused to recant his 'heresy.' However,
Charles's piety could not stop his mutinying troops from plundering the Holy See in the Sacco di Roma.
Defending Europe against Islam, notably the Ottoman Empire.
To spread religion to the unconverted souls of the new world. With conflict between Catholics and Protestants raging in Europe, the new world was an ideal place for more Catholics to be recruited. Sony PCG-7T1M Keyboard
The Pillars of Hercules with the motto "Plus Ultra" as symbol of the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V in the Town Hall of Seville (16th century)
Spanish intervention in Europe[edit source | editbeta]
Struggles of Charles V for Italy[edit source | editbeta]
With the ascent of the king Charles I in 1516 and his election as sovereign of the Holy Roman Empire in 1519, Francis I of France found himself surrounded by Habsburg territories, invaded the Spanish possessions in Italy in 1521, Sony PCG-7T2M Keyboard
and inaugurated the second war of Franco-Spanish conflict. The war was a disaster for France, which suffered defeat at the Battle of Biccoca (1522), the Battle of Pavia (1525, at which Francis was captured), and the Battle of Landriano (1529) before Francis relented and abandoned Milan to Spain once more. Sony PCG-7X1M Keyboard
The Battle of Pavia (1525)
King Charles I (Charles V (Holy Roman Emperor)) achieved victory at the Battle of Pavia in 1525 and surprised many Italians and Germans and elicited concerns that Charles would endeavor to gain ever greater power. Sony PCG-7Y1M Keyboard
[citation needed] Pope Clement VII switched sides and now joined forces with France and prominent Italian states against the Habsburg Emperor, resulting in the War of the League of Cognac. Charles grew exhausted with the pope's meddling in what he viewed as purely secular affairs. In 1527, Sony VGN-N11M Keyboard
Sony VGN-N38M KeyboardCharles' army of mercenaries in northern Italy, underpaid and desiring to plunder the city of Rome, mutinied, advanced southward toward Rome, and sacked the city. The sack of Rome, while unintended by Charles, Sony VGN-N11SR Keyboard
Sony VGN-N38L Keyboardembarrassed the papacy sufficiently enough that Clement, and succeeding popes, were considerably more circumspect in their dealings with secular authorities.[citation needed]
In 1533, Clement's refusal to annul the first marriage of King Henry VIII of England may have been partly or entirely motivated by his unwillingness to offend the emperor and have his capital sacked for perhaps a second time. The Peace of Barcelona, signed between Charles V and the Pope in 1529,
Sony VGN-N38E Keyboard established a more cordial relationship between the two leaders. Spain was effectively named the protector of the Catholic cause and Charles was crowned as King of Italy (Lombardy) in return for Spanish intervention in overthrowing the rebellious Florentine Republic.
In 1528,
Sony VGN-N31ZR Keyboardthe great admiral Andrea Doria allied with the Emperor to oust the French and restore Genoa's independence, opening the prospect for financial renewal: 1528 marks the first loan from Genoese banks to Charles.[92] Sony VGN-N21E Keyboard
In 1543, the king of France Francis I announced his unprecedented alliance with the Ottoman sultan, Suleiman the Magnificent, by occupying the Spanish-controlled city of Nice in concert with Ottoman forces.
Sony VGN-N31S Keyboard Henry VIII of England, who bore a greater grudge against France than he held against the Emperor for standing in the way of his divorce, joined Charles in his invasion of France.
Sony VGN-N31M Keyboard Although the Spanish army was defeated at the Battle of Ceresole in Savoy the French were unable to seriously threaten Spanish controlled Milan, whilst suffering defeat in the north at the hands of Henry, Sony VGN-N21M Keyboard
Sony VGN-N31L Keyboard thereby being forced to accept unfavourable terms. The Austrians, led by Charles's younger brother Ferdinand, continued to fight the Ottomans in the east. Charles went to take care of an older problem: the Schmalkaldic League. Sony VGN-N21S Keyboard
Religious conflicts in the Holy Empire[edit source | editbeta]
A map of the dominion of the Habsburgs following the abdication of Charles V (1556) as depicted in The Cambridge Modern History Atlas (1912); Habsburg lands are shaded green. From 1556 the lands in a line from the Netherlands, through to the east of France, to the south of Italy and the islands were retained by the Spanish Habsburgs. Sony VGN-N21Z Keyboard
The Schmalkaldic League had allied itself to the French, and efforts in Germany to undermine the League had been rebuffed. Francis's defeat in 1544 led to the annulment of the alliance with the Protestants, and Charles took advantage of the opportunity. He first tried the path of negotiation at the Council of Trent in 1545, Sony VGN-NW20ZF Keyboard
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but the Protestant leadership, feeling betrayed by the stance taken by the Catholics at the council, went to war, led by the Saxon elector Maurice.
In response, Charles invaded Germany at the head of a mixed Dutch–Spanish army, hoping to restore the Imperial authority. Sony VGN-NW26M Keyboard
Sony VGN-NS20EF/W keyboard The emperor personally inflicted a decisive defeat on the Protestants at the historic Battle of Mühlberg in 1547. In 1555, Charles signed the Peace of Augsburg with the Protestant states and restored stability in Germany on his principle of cuius regio, eius religio, a position unpopular with Spanish and Italian clergymen. Sony VGN-NW20EF Keyboard
Sony VGN-NS20EF keyboardCharles's involvement in Germany would establish a role for Spain as protector of the Catholic, Habsburg cause in the Holy Roman Empire; the precedent would lead, seven decades later, to involvement in the war that would decisively end Spain as Europe's leading power. Sony VGN-NW20SF Keyboard
Defeat of France[edit source | editbeta]
Charles V's only legitimate son, Philip II of Spain (r. 1556–98) parted the Austrian possessions with his uncle Ferdinand. Philip treated Castile as the foundation of his empire, but the population of Castile was never great enough to provide the soldiers needed to support the Empire. When he married Mary Tudor, England was allied to Spain.
The celebrations following the Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis (1559) between Spain and France
Spain was not yet at peace, as the aggressive Henry II of France came to the throne in 1547 and immediately renewed conflict with Spain. Sony VGN-NW24JG Keyboard
Sony VGN-NS30E keyboardCharles's successor, Philip II, aggressively prosecuted the war against France, crushing a French army at the Battle of St. Quentin in Picardy in 1558 and defeating Henry again at the Battle of Gravelines. Sony VGN-NW24MG Keyboard
The Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis, signed in 1559, permanently recognized Spanish claims in Italy. In the celebrations that followed the treaty, Henry was killed by a stray splinter from a lance. France was stricken for the next thirty years by chronic civil war and unrest (see French Wars of Religion) and removed from effectively competing with Spain and the Habsburg family in European power games. Freed from effective French opposition, Spain saw the apogee of its might and territorial reach in the period 1559–1643. Sony VGN-NW24MR Keyboard
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The opening for the Genoese banking consortium was the state bankruptcy of Philip II in 1557, which threw the German banking houses into chaos and ended the reign of the Fuggers as Spanish financiers.[93] Sony VGN-NW26JG Keyboard
Sony VGN-NS20M keyboardThe Genoese bankers provided the unwieldy Habsburg system with fluid credit and a dependably regular income. In return the less dependable shipments of American silver were rapidly transferred from Seville to Genoa, to provide capital for further ventures.
European conflicts at the time of Philip II[edit source | editbeta]
The time for rejoicing in Madrid was short-lived. In 1566, Calvinist-led riots in the Netherlands prompted the Duke of Alba to march into the country to restore order. In 1568, William of Orange, better known as William the Silent, Sony VGN-NW20SF Keyboard
Sony VGN-NS20E keyboard led a failed attempt to drive Alba from the Netherlands. These battles are generally considered to signal the start of the Eighty Years' War that ended with the independence of the United Provinces. Sony VGN-NW21MF/P Keyboard
Sony VGN-NS11J keyboardThe Spanish, who derived a great deal of wealth from the Netherlands and particularly from the vital port of Antwerp, were committed to restoring order and maintaining their hold on the provinces. Sony VGN-NW31EF Keyboard
Sony VGN-NS10L keyboardAccording to Luc-Normand Tellier, "It is estimated that the port of Antwerp was earning the Spanish crown seven times more revenues than the Americas."[94] In 1572, a band of rebel Dutch privateers known as the watergeuzen ("Sea Beggars") seized a number of Dutch coastal towns, proclaimed their support for William and denounced the Spanish leadership. Sony VGN-NW31ZF/S Keyboard
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Otto van Veen: The Relief of Leiden (1574) after the Dutch had broken their dykes in the Eighty Years' War
For Spain, the war became an endless quagmire, sometimes literally. In 1574, the Spanish army under Luis de Requeséns was repulsed from the Siege of Leiden after the Dutch broke the dykes, thus causing extensive flooding. In 1576, Sony VGN-NR31E Keyboard
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faced with the bills from his 80,000-man army of occupation in the Netherlands, the cost of his fleet that had won at Lepanto, together with the growing threat of piracy in the open seas reducing his income from his American colonies, Philip was forced to accept bankruptcy. Sony VGN-NR31J Keyboard
The army in the Netherlands mutinied not long after, seizing Antwerp and looting the southern Netherlands, prompting several cities in the previously peaceful southern provinces to join the rebellion. The Spanish chose to negotiate, and pacified most of the southern provinces again with the Union of Arras in 1579. Sony VGN-NR31MR Keyboard
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Sony VGN-NR21S Keyboard In response, the Netherlands created the Union of Utrecht, as an alliance between the northern provinces, later that month. They officially deposed Philip in 1581 when they enacted the Act of Abjuration. Sony VGN-NR31SR Keyboard
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Under the Arras agreement the southern states of the Spanish Netherlands, today in Wallonia and the Nord-Pas-de-Calais (and Picardy) régions in France, expressed their loyalty to the Spanish king Philip II and recognized his Governor-General, Sony VGN-NR31Z Keyboard
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Sony VGN-NR21E KeyboardDon Juan of Austria. In 1580, this gave King Philip the opportunity to strengthen his position when the last member of the Portuguese royal family, Cardinal Henry of Portugal, died. Philip asserted his claim to the Portuguese throne and in June sent the Duke of Alba with an army to Lisbon to assure his succession. Sony VGN-NR31ZR Keyboard
Sony VGN-NR11Z/T Keyboard Though the Duke of Alba and the Spanish occupation, however, was little more popular in Lisbon than in Rotterdam, the combined Spanish and Portuguese empires placed into Philip's hands almost the entirety of the explored New World along with a vast trading empire in Africa and Asia. In 1582, Sony VGN-NR38E Keyboard
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when Philip II moved his court back to Madrid from the Atlantic port of Lisbon where he had temporarily settled to pacify his new Portuguese kingdom, the pattern was sealed, in spite of what every observant commentator privately noted: Sony VGN-NR38S Keyboard
Sony VGN-NR11Z Keyboard"Sea power is more important to the ruler of Spain than any other prince" wrote a commentator, "for it is only by sea power that a single community can be created out of so many so far apart." A writer on tactics in 1638 observed, Sony VGN-NR38Z Keyboard
Sony VGN-NR11S Keyboard "The might most suited to the arms of Spain is that which is placed on the seas, but this matter of state is so well known that I should not discuss it, even if I thought it opportune to do so."[95] Sony VGN-NR38Z/T Keyboard
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The defense of Cádiz, by Zurbarán.
Portugal required an extensive occupation force to keep it under control, and Spain was still reeling from the 1576 bankruptcy. In 1584, William the Silent was assassinated by a half-deranged Catholic, and the death of the popular Dutch resistance leader was hoped to bring an end to the war. It did not. In 1586, HP Pavilion G72-110SA Keyboard
HP Pavilion G72-B20SA Keyboard Queen Elizabeth I of England, sent support to the Protestant causes in the Netherlands and France, and Sir Francis Drake launched attacks against Spanish merchants in the Caribbean and the Pacific, along with a particularly aggressive attack on the port of Cadiz.
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In 1588, hoping to put a stop to Elizabeth's intervention, Philip sent the Spanish Armada to attack England. Favourable weather, more heavily armed and manœuvrable English ships, and the fact that the English had been warned by their spies in the Netherlands and were ready for the attack resulted in defeat for the Armada. HP Pavilion G72-130SA Keyboard
However the failure of the Drake–Norris Expedition to Portugal and the Azores in 1589 marked a turning point in the on-off 1585–1604 Anglo–Spanish War. The Spanish fleets became more effective in transporting greatly increased quantities of silver and gold from the Americas, while English attacks suffered costly failures. HP Pavilion G72-A10SA Keyboard
The Spanish Armada leaving the Bay of Ferrol (1588).
Spain had invested itself in the religious warfare in France after Henry II's death. In 1589, Henry III, the last of the Valois lineage, died at the walls of Paris. His successor, Henry IV of Navarre, the first Bourbon king of France, was a man of great ability, HP Pavilion G72-102SA Keyboard
HP Pavilion G72-B02SA Keyboardwinning key victories against the Catholic League at Arques (1589) and Ivry (1590). Committed to stopping Henry of Navarre from becoming King of France, the Spanish divided their army in the Netherlands and invaded France in 1590. HP Pavilion G72-105SA Keyboard
HP Pavilion G72-B01SA Keyboard
The pacification at the time of Philip III[edit source | editbeta]
Faced with wars against England, France and the Netherlands, each led by capable leaders, the bankrupted empire found itself competing against strong adversaries. Continuing piracy against its shipping in the Atlantic and the costly colonial enterprises forced Spain to renegotiate its debts in 1596. HP Pavilion G72-A20SA Keyboard
HP Pavilion G72-B01EA KeyboardThe crown attempted to reduce its exposure to the different conflicts, first signing the Treaty of Vervins with France in 1598, recognizing Henry IV (since 1593 a Catholic) as king of France, and restoring many of the stipulations of the previous Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis. The Kingdom of England, HP Pavilion G72-A30SA Keyboard
HP Pavilion G72-A40SA Keyboardsuffering from a series of repulses at sea and from an endless guerrilla war by Catholics in Ireland, who were supported by Spain, agreed to the Treaty of London, 1604, following the accession of the more tractable Stuart King James I. HP 640426-001 CPU fan with heatsink
HP 582141-001 CPU fan with heatsink
Castile provided the Spanish crown with most of its revenues and its best troops.[96] The plague devastated Castilian lands between 1596 and 1602, causing the deaths of some 600,000 people.[97]
HP 582140-001 CPU fan with heatsinkA great number of Castilians went to America or died in battle. In 1609, the great majority of the Morisco population of Spain was expelled. It is estimated that Castile lost about 25% of its population between 1600 and 1623. HP 640903-001 CPU fan with heatsink
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HP 582139-001 CPU fan with heatsink Such a dramatic drop in the population meant the basis for the Crown's revenues was dangerously weakened in a time when it was engaged in continuous conflict in Europe.[98] HP 650848-001 CPU fan with heatsink
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Peace with England and France gave Spain an opportunity to focus its energies on restoring its rule to the Dutch provinces. The Dutch, led by Maurice of Nassau, the son of William the Silent and perhaps the greatest strategist of his time, had succeeded in taking a number of border cities since 1590,
HP 535766-001 CPU fan with heatsinkincluding the fortress of Breda. Following the peace with England, the new Spanish commander Ambrogio Spinola, a general with the ability to match Maurice, pressed hard against the Dutch and was prevented from conquering the Netherlands only by Spain's latest bankruptcy in 1607. HP 653627-001 CPU fan with heatsink
HP 535439-001 CPU fan with heatsinkIn 1609, the Twelve Years' Truce was signed between Spain and the United Provinces. At last, Spain was at peace – the Pax Hispanica.
Spain made a fair recovery during the truce, putting its finances in order and doing much to restore its prestige and stability in the run-up to the last truly great war in which she would play a leading part. Philip II's successor, Philip III, HP 665309-001 CPU fan with heatsink
HP 384622-001 CPU fan with heatsink was a man of limited ability, uninterested in politics and preferring to delegate management of the empire to others.[citation needed] His chief minister was the capable Duke of Lerma. HP 666391-001 CPU fan with heatsink
The Surrender of Breda (1625) to Ambrogio Spinola, by Velazquez. This victory came to symbolize the renewed period of Spanish military vigour in the Thirty Years' War.
The Duke of Lerma (and to a large extent Philip II) had been uninterested in the affairs of their ally, Austria. HP 650057-001 CPU fan with heatsink
HP 650797-001 CPU fan with heatsink In 1618, the king replaced him with Don Balthasar de Zúñiga, a veteran ambassador to Vienna. Don Balthasar believed that the key to restraining the resurgent French and eliminating the Dutch was a closer alliance with Habsburg Austria. In 1618, beginning with the Defenestration of Prague, HP 431311-001 CPU fan with heatsink
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Austria and the Holy Roman Emperor, Ferdinand II, embarked on a campaign against the Protestant Union and Bohemia. Don Balthasar encouraged Philip to join the Austrian Habsburgs in the war, and Spinola, HP 443917-001 CPU fan with heatsink
HP 579158-001 CPU fan with heatsink the rising star of the Spanish army in the Netherlands, was sent at the head of the Army of Flanders to intervene. Thus, Spain entered into the Thirty Years' War.
The road to Rocroi[edit source | editbeta] HP 456605-001 CPU fan with heatsink
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In 1621, Philip III was succeeded by the considerably more religious Philip IV. The following year, Don Balthasar was replaced by Gaspar de Guzmán, Count-Duke of Olivares, a reasonably honest and able man. After certain initial setbacks, the Bohemians were defeated at White Mountain in 1621, and again at Stadtlohn in 1623. HP 487436-001 CPU fan with heatsink
HP 534685-001 CPU fan with heatsink The war with the Netherlands was renewed in 1621 with Spinola taking the fortress of Breda in 1625. The intervention of Christian IV of Denmark in the war threatened the Spanish position, HP 498480-001 CPU fan with heatsink
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but the victory of the Imperial general Albert of Wallenstein over the Danes at Dessau Bridge and again at Lutter (both in 1626), eliminated that threat.
There was hope in Madrid that the Netherlands might finally be reincorporated into the Empire, and after the defeat of Denmark the Protestants in Germany seemed crushed. HP 532141-001 CPU fan with heatsink
HP 534684-001 CPU fan with heatsinkFrance was once again involved in its own instabilities (the famous Siege of La Rochelle began in 1627), and Spain's eminence seemed clear. The Count-Duke Olivares stridently affirmed, "God is Spanish and fights for our nation these days".[99] HP 532605-001 CPU fan with heatsink
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Olivares realized that Spain needed to reform, and to reform it needed peace, first and foremost with the United Provinces. However, Olivares aimed for "peace with honour" which meant in practice a peace settlement which would have restored to Spain something of its predominant position in the Netherlands.
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HP 534675-001 CPU fan with heatsinkThis was unacceptable to the United Provinces and the inevitable consequence of that was the constant hope that one more victory would after all lead to "peace with honour" – perpetuating the ruinous war which Olivare had wanted to avoid to begin with. HP 602472-001 CPU fan with heatsink
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To illustrate the precarious economic situation of Spain at the time, it is sufficient to recall that it was actually Dutch bankers who financed the East India merchants of Seville (during the truce, presumably). At the same time, HP 603690-001 CPU fan with heatsink
HP 657529-001 CPU fan with heatsinkeverywhere in the world Dutch entrepreneurship and colonists were undermining Spanish and Portuguese hegemony. Spain badly needed time and peace to repair its finances and to rebuild its economy. HP 603691-001 CPU fan with heatsink
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While Spinola and the Spanish army were focused on the Netherlands, the war seemed to go in Spain's favor. But 1627 saw the collapse of the Castilian economy. The Habsburgs had been debasing their currency to pay for the war and prices exploded, just as they had in previous years in Austria. Until 1631, HP 604787-001 CPU fan with heatsink
HP 637610-001 CPU fan with heatsink parts of Castile operated on a barter economy owing to the currency crisis, and the government was unable to collect any meaningful taxes from the peasantry and had to depend on revenue from its colonies. The Spanish armies, like others in German territories, resorted to "paying themselves" on the land. HP 606574-001 CPU fan with heatsink
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Battle of Nördlingen (1634). Decisive victory for the Catholic Imperial army and Spain over the Swedes.
Olivares had backed certain taxation reforms in Spain pending the end of the war, but was blamed for another embarrassing and fruitless war in Italy. The Dutch, who during the Twelve Years' Truce had made increasing their navy a priority, HP 606575-001 CPU fan with heatsink
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(which showed its maturing potency at the Battle of Gibraltar 1607), managed to strike a great blow against Spanish maritime trade with the capture by captain Piet Hein of the Spanish treasure fleet on which Spain had become dependent after the economic collapse. HP 606731-001 CPU fan with heatsink
Spanish military resources were stretched across Europe and also at sea as they sought to protect maritime trade against the greatly improved Dutch and French fleets, while still occupied with the Ottoman and associated Barbary pirate threat in the Mediterranean. In the meantime the aim of choking Dutch shipping was carried out by the Dunkirkers with considerable success.
HP 631742-001 CPU fan with heatsinkIn 1625 a Spanish-Portuguese fleet, under Admiral Fradique de Toledo, regained the strategically vital Brazilian city of Salvador da Bahia from the Dutch. Elsewhere, HP 608010-001 CPU fan with heatsink
HP 622028-001 CPU fan with heatsinkthe isolated and undermanned Portuguese forts in Africa and the Asia proved vulnerable to Dutch and English raids and takeovers or simply being bypassed as important trading posts.
In 1630, Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden, one of history's most noted commanders, landed in Germany and relieved the port of Stralsund, the last continental stronghold of German forces belligerent to the Emperor. HP 608095-001 CPU fan with heatsink
Gustavus then marched south and won notable victories at Breitenfeld and Lützen, attracting more Protestant support with every step he took. The situation for the Catholics improved with Gustavus's death at Lutzen in 1632, HP 608229-001 CPU fan with heatsink
HP 608378-001 CPU fan with heatsinkand a key victory at Nordlingen was won in 1634. From a position of strength, the Emperor approached the war-weary German states with a peace in 1635: many accepted, including the two most powerful, Brandenburg and Saxony. But then France entered the war, and diplomatic calculations were once again thrown in confusion. HP 480481-001 CPU fan with heatsink
The Battle of Rocroi (1643), the symbolic end of Spain's grandeur.
Cardinal Richelieu of France had been a strong supporter of the Dutch and Protestants since the beginning of the war, sending funds and equipment in an attempt to stem Habsburg strength in Europe. HP 533736-001 CPU fan with heatsink
Richelieu decided that the recently signed Peace of Prague was contrary to French interests and declared war on the Holy Roman Emperor and Spain within months of the peace being signed. In the war that followed, HP 535441-001 CPU fan with heatsink
the more experienced Spanish forces scored initial successes. Olivares ordered a lightning campaign into northern France from the Spanish Netherlands, hoping to shatter the resolve of King Louis XIII's ministers and topple Richelieu. HP 535442-001 CPU fan with heatsink
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In the "année de Corbie", 1636, Spanish forces advanced as far south as Corbie, and such was the threat to Paris that the war came close to a conclusion on Spanish terms.
After 1636, however, HP 655983-001 CPU fan with heatsink
HP 434678-001 CPU fan with heatsinkOlivares halted the advance, fearful of provoking another crown bankruptcy. The hesitation in pressing home the advantage proved fateful; French forces regrouped and pushed the Spanish back towards the border. HP 657942-001 CPU fan with heatsink
HP 431448-001 CPU fan with heatsink The Spanish army would never again penetrate so far. At the Battle of the Downs in 1639 a Spanish fleet carrying troops was destroyed by the Dutch navy, and the Spanish found themselves unable to supply and reinforce their forces adequately in the Netherlands. HP 646578-001 CPU fan with heatsink
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The Army of Flanders, which represented the finest of Spanish soldiery and leadership, faced a French assault led by Louis II de Bourbon, Prince de Condé in northern France at Rocroi in 1643. The Spanish, led by Francisco de Melo, HP 606609-001 CPU fan with heatsink
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HP 486844-001 CPU fan with heatsinkwere beaten by the French. After a closely fought battle the Spanish were forced to surrender on honorable terms. As a result, while the slaughter was not great, the high reputation of the Army of Flanders was broken at Rocroi, and with it, the grandeur of Spain.
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The defeat at Rocroi also led to the dismissal of the embattled Olivares, who was confined to his estates by the king's order and died two years later, broken and mad.
The Last Spanish Habsburgs[edit source | editbeta]
Traditionally, historians mark the Battle of Rocroi (1643) as the end of Spanish dominance in Europe, but the war was not finished. HP 612355-001 CPU fan with heatsink
HP 492314-001 CPU fan with heatsinkSupported by the French, the Catalans, Neapolitans, and Portuguese rose up in revolt against the Spanish in the 1640s. With the Spanish Netherlands caught between the tightening grip of French and Dutch forces after the Battle of Lens in 1648,
HP 491572-001 CPU fan with heatsinkthe Spanish made peace with the Dutch and recognized the independent United Provinces in the Peace of Westphalia that ended both the Eighty Years' War and the Thirty Years' War. HP 606014-001 CPU fan with heatsink
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The meeting of Philip IV of Spain and Louis XIV of France on 7 July 1660 at Pheasant Island.
War with France continued for eleven more years. Although France suffered from a civil war from 1648 to 1652 (see Wars of the Fronde) the Spanish economy was so exhausted that it was unable to effectively cope with war on so many fronts. HP 610774-001 CPU fan with heatsink
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HP 448016-001 CPU fan with heatsinkYet the decline of Spanish power in this period has often been overstated. Spain retook Naples in 1648 and Catalonia in 1652, but the war came to an end at the Battle of the Dunes (1658) where the French army under Viscount Turenne defeated the remnants of the Spanish army of the Netherlands. HP 622033-001 CPU fan with heatsink
HP 535438-001 CPU fan with heatsinkSpain agreed to the Peace of the Pyrenees in 1659 that ceded to France Roussillon and Artois.
Portugal had rebelled in 1640 under the leadership of John of Braganza, a pretender to the throne. He had received widespread support from the Portuguese people, and Spain—which had to deal with rebellions elsewhere, HP 610777-001 CPU fan with heatsink
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along with the war against France – was unable to respond adequately. John mounted the throne as King John IV of Portugal and the Spanish and Portuguese co-existed in a de facto state of peace from 1644 to 1656. HP 631743-001 CPU fan with heatsink
When John died in 1656, the Spanish attempted to wrest Portugal from his son Alfonso VI of Portugal but were defeated at Ameixial (1663) and Montes Claros (1665), leading to Spain's recognition of Portugal's independence in 1668. HP 622029-001 CPU fan with heatsink
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Spain still had a huge overseas empire, but France was now the dominant power in Europe and the United Provinces were in the Atlantic.
The Great Plague of Seville (1647–1652) killed up to 25% of Seville's population[citation needed]. Sevilla, and indeed the economy of Andalucía, would never recover from so complete a devastation.
HP 532614-001 CPU fan with heatsinkAltogether Spain was thought to have lost 500,000 people, out of a population of slightly fewer than 10,000,000, or nearly 5% of its entire population. Historians reckon the total cost in human lives due to these plagues throughout Spain, throughout the entire 17th century, to be a minimum of nearly 1.25 million.[100] HP 532613-001 CPU fan with heatsink
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The regency of the young Spanish king Charles II was incompetent in dealing with the War of Devolution that Louis XIV of France prosecuted against the Spanish Netherlands in 1667–68, losing considerable prestige and territory, including the cities of Lille and Charleroi. In the Franco-Dutch War of 1672–1678, Compaq Presario CQ62-215SA keyboard
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Spain lost still more territory when it came to the assistance of its former Dutch enemies, most notably Franche-Comté. In the Nine Years' War (1688–1697) Louis once again invaded the Spanish Netherlands. Compaq Presario CQ62-221SA keyboard
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French forces led by the Duke of Luxembourg defeated the Spanish at Fleurus (1690), and subsequently defeated Dutch forces under William III of Orange, who fought on Spain's side. The war ended with most of the Spanish Netherlands under French occupation, including the important cities of Ghent and Luxembourg. Compaq Presario CQ62-225SA keyboard
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The war revealed to Europe how vulnerable the Spanish defenses and bureaucracy were. Also the ineffective Spanish Habsburg government took no action to improve them.
The final decades of the 17th century saw utter decay and stagnation in Spain; while the rest of Western Europe went through exciting changes in government and society – the Glorious Revolution in England and the reign of the Sun King in France –Compaq Presario CQ62-230SA keyboard
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Compaq Presario CQ62-A10EA keyboard Spain remained adrift. The Spanish bureaucracy that had built up around the charismatic, industrious, and intelligent Charles I and Philip II demanded a strong and hardworking monarch; Compaq Presario CQ62-A10SA keyboard
Compaq Presario CQ62-230EA keyboard the weakness and lack of interest of Philip III and Philip IV contributed to Spain's decay. Charles II was mentally retarded and impotent. He was therefore childless, and in his final will he left his throne to the Bourbon prince Philip of Anjou, Compaq Presario CQ62-A20SA keyboard
rather than to a fellow Habsburg, albeit from Austria. This resulted in the War of the Spanish Succession.
Africa and the Mediterranean[edit source | editbeta]
By the 16th century, the Ottomans had become an existential threat to Europe. Ottoman conquests in Europe made significant gains with a decisive victory at Mohács.[ Compaq Presario CQ62-A25SA keyboard
Compaq Presario CQ62-220EA keyboard101] Charles had preferred to suppress the Ottomans through a considerably more maritime strategy, hampering Ottoman landings on the Venetian territories in the Eastern Mediterranean. Compaq Presario CQ62-A50SA keyboard
The coastal villages and towns of Spain, Italy and the Mediterranean islands were frequently attacked by Barbary pirates from North Africa; the Formentera was even temporarily left by its population and long stretches of the Spanish and Italian coasts were almost completely abandoned by their inhabitants. Compaq Presario CQ62-A55SA keyboard
The most famous corsair was the Turkish Barbarossa ("Redbeard"). According to Robert C. Davis, between 1 million and 1.25 million Europeans were captured by North African pirates and sold as slaves in North Africa and Ottoman Empire between the 16th and 19th centuries.[102] Compaq Presario CQ62-A65SA keyboard
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The reign of Charles V saw a decline in the presence of Spain in the North of Africa, even if Tunis and its port, La Goleta, were taken in 1535. One after the other, most of the Spanish possessions were lost: Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera (1522), Santa Cruz de Mar Pequeña (1524), Algiers (1529), Tripoli (1551), Bujia (1554), and La Goleta and Tunis (1569). Compaq Presario CQ62Z-200 keyboard
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Only in response to Barbary pirates' raids on the eastern coast of Spain did Charles lead attacks against Tunis (1535) and Algiers (1541).
The Battle of Lepanto (1571), marked the end of the Ottoman naval supremacy in the Mediterranean Sea.
In 1565, the Spanish defeated an Ottoman landing on the strategic island of Malta, defended by the Knights of St. John. Suleiman the Magnificent's death the following year and his succession by his less capable son Selim the Sot emboldened Philip, Compaq Presario CQ60-114EA keyboard
Compaq Presario CQ60Z-200 CTO keyboard and he resolved to carry the war to the sultan himself. In 1571, Spanish and Venetian warships, joined by volunteers across Europe, led by Charles's illegitimate son Don John of Austria annihilated the Ottoman fleet at the Battle of Lepanto,
Compaq Presario CQ60-430SA keyboardin what is perhaps the most decisive battle in modern naval history. The battle ended the threat of Ottoman naval hegemony in the Mediterranean. This mission marked the height of the respectability of Spain and its sovereign abroad as Philip bore the burden of leading the Counter-Reformation. Compaq Presario CQ60-212EA keyboard
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The Ottomans recovered soon. They reconquered Tunis in 1574, and they helped to restore an ally, Abu Marwan Abd al-Malik I Saadi, in the throne of Morocco, in 1576. The death of the Persian shah, Tahmasp I was an opportunity for the Ottoman sultan to intervene in that country, so, in 1580 was agreed a truce in the Mediterranean with Philip II.[103] Compaq Presario CQ60-219EA keyboard
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In the first half of the 17th century, Larache and La Mamora, in the Moroccan Atlantic coast, and the island of Alhucemas, in the Mediterranean, were taken, but during the second half of the 17th century, Larache and La Mamora were also lost.
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The New World[edit source | editbeta]
Explorers and conquistadors[edit source | editbeta]
After Columbus, the Spanish colonization of America was led by a series of warrior-explorers called Conquistadors. Compaq Presario CQ60-305SA keyboard
Compaq Presario CQ60-409SA keyboardThe Spanish forces, in addition to significant armament and equestrian advantages, exploited the rivalries between competing Indigenous peoples, tribes, and nations, some of which were willing to form alliances with the Spanish in order to defeat their more-powerful enemiesCompaq Presario CQ60-307SA keyboard
Compaq Presario CQ60-405SA keyboardsuch as the Aztecs or Incas—a tactic that would be extensively used by later European colonial powers. The Spanish conquest was also facilitated by the spread of diseases (e.g. smallpox), common in Europe but never present in the New World, which reduced the indigenous populations in America. Compaq Presario CQ60-307EA keyboard
Compaq Presario CQ60-320SA keyboardThis sometimes caused a labour shortage for plantations and public works and so the colonists informally and gradually, at first, initiated the Atlantic slave trade. (see Population history of American indigenous peoples) Compaq Presario CQ60-311SA keyboard
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Emperor Atahualpa is shown surrounded on his palanquin at the Battle of Cajamarca.
One of the most accomplished conquistadors was Hernán Cortés, who leading a relatively small Spanish force but with local translators and the crucial support of thousands of native allies, achieved the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire in the campaigns of 1519–1521.
Compaq Presario CQ62-210SA keyboardThis territory later became the Viceroyalty of New Spain, present day Mexico. Of equal importance was the Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire by Francisco Pizarro, which would become the Viceroyalty of Peru.[104] Compaq Presario CQ71-135SA keyboard
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After the conquest of Mexico, rumours of golden cities (Quivira and Cíbola in North America and El Dorado in South America) motivated several other expeditions. Many of those returned without having found their goal, Compaq Presario CQ71-130SA keyboard
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or finding it much less valuable than was hoped. Indeed, the New World colonies only began to yield a substantial part of the Crown's revenues with the establishment of mines such as that of Potosí (Bolivia) and Zacatecas (Mexico) both started in 1546. By the late 16th century, silver from the Americas accounted for 1⁄5 of Spain's total budget.[104] Compaq Presario CQ71-140SA keyboard
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Eventually the world's stock of precious metal was doubled or even tripled by silver from the Americas.[105] Official records indicate that at least 75% of the silver was taken across the Atlantic to Spain and no more than 25% across the Pacific to China. Compaq Presario CQ71-230SA keyboard
Compaq Presario CQ71-402SA keyboardSome modern researchers argue that due to rampant smuggling about 50% went to China.[105] In the 16th century "perhaps 240,000 Europeans" entered American ports.[106] Compaq Presario CQ71-235SA keyboard
Further Spanish settlements were progressively established in the New World: New Granada in the 1530s (later in the Viceroyalty of New Granada in 1717 and present day Colombia), Lima in 1535 as the capital of the Viceroyalty of Peru, Buenos Aires in 1536 (later in the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata in 1776), and Santiago in 1541. Compaq Presario CQ71-300 keyboard
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Cristóbal de Olid leads Spanish soldiers with Tlaxcalan allies in the conquests of Jalisco, 1522. From Lienzo de Tlaxcala.
Spanish settlements in Chile before the Destruction of the Seven Cities; in 1604, all settlements south Biobío River except those in Chiloé had fallen. Compaq Presario CQ71-305SA keyboard
Compaq Presario CQ71-320SA keyboard
Florida was colonized in 1565 by Pedro Menéndez de Avilés when he founded Saint Augustine and then promptly defeated an attempt led by the French Captain Jean Ribault and 150 of his countrymen to establish a French foothold in Spanish Florida territory. Compaq Presario CQ71-312SA keyboard
Compaq Presario CQ71-314SA keyboard Saint Augustine quickly became a strategic defensive base for the Spanish ships full of gold and silver being sent to Spain from its New World dominions.
The Portuguese Ferdinand Magellan died while in the Philippines commanding a Castilian expedition to circumnavigate the globe in 1522. Juan Sebastián Elcano would lead the expedition to success. Therefore, Spain sought to enforce their rights in the Moluccan islands,
Dell Latitude E6420-ATG Keyboard which led a conflict with the Portuguese, but the issue was resolved with the Treaty of Zaragoza (1525), settling the location of the antimeridian of Tordesillas, which would divide the world into two equal hemispheres. Dell Latitude E4310 Keyboard
Dell Latitude E6330 Keyboard Thenceforth, maritime expeditions led to the discovery of several archipelagos in the South Pacific as the Pitcairn Islands, the Marquesas, Tuvalu, Vanuatu, the Solomon Islands or New Guinea. Dell Latitude E4320 Keyboard
On 27 April 1565, the first permanent Spanish settlement in the Philippines was founded by Miguel López de Legazpi and the service of Manila Galleons was inaugurated. The Manilla Galleons shipped goods from all over Asia across the Pacific to Acapulco on the coast of Mexico. From there, Dell Latitude E4200 Keyboard
the goods were transshipped across Mexico to the Spanish treasure fleets, for shipment to Spain. The Spanish trading post of Manila was established to facilitate this trade in 1572. The control of Guam, Mariana Islands, Caroline Islands, and Palau was later, from the end of the 17th century, and remained under Spanish control until 1898. Dell Latitude E4300 Keyboard
In 1599, the Spanish Empire suffered one of its greatest setbacks in the Americas when native Mapuches destroyed the Spanish army of Chile and killed the governor Martín García Óñez de Loyola in the Battle of Curalaba. Dell Latitude E6500 Keyboard
This event led to a generalized rebellion that ended in the Destruction of the Seven Cities, and established the Bío-Bío River as frontier. This led to the prolonged war called the War of Arauco, and southern Chile received the name of Flandés Indiano (Indian Flanders) due to the resistances of the Mapuches. Dell Latitude E5400 Keyboard
Dell Latitude E6120 Keyboard [2] In a case unique for America, the Spanish established a professional army in Chile financed through the Real Situado by the Viceroyalty of Peru.
Organization and administration[edit source | editbeta]
From the beginning of the exploration and conquest of the Indies, the Crown assumed the control of the venture turning away the Columbus family. Dell Latitude E5410 Keyboard
Dell Latitude E5530 Keyboard In 1503 the Casa de Contratación was founded to control migration to the New World, which was restricted to old Christians especially families and women.[107] In addition, the Casa de Contratación took charge of the fiscal organization, and of the organization and judicial control of the trade with the Indies.[108] Dell Latitude E5500 Keyboard
The system of government in Spain was constituted by a polisynodial system of Councils which advised the monarch and made decisions on his behalf about specific matters of government. In 1524 it was established the Council of The Indies with the assignment of the government of the Indies from the mainland, Dell Latitude E5510 Keyboard
Dell Latitude E6520 Keyboard thus it was responsible for drafting legislation, proposing the appointments to the King and pronouncing judicial sentences; as maximum authority in the ultramarine territories, the Council of The Indies took over both the institutions in the Indies as the defense of the interests of the Crown and of the aborigens.[109] Dell Latitude E5420 Keyboard
The Laws of the Indies resulted in the Laws of Burgos, 1512–1513, which were the first codified set of laws governing the behavior of Spanish settlers in the Americas, particularly with regards to treatment of native Indians. Dell Latitude E6430 Keyboard
Dell Latitude E6430-ATG Keyboard
Dell Precision M4400 Keyboard They forbade the maltreatment of natives, and endorsed the Indian Reductions with attempts of conversion to Catholicism.[110] Upon their failure, they were replaced by the New Laws (1542)
1541 founding of Santiago de Chile
Spain passed some laws for the protection of the indigenous peoples of its American colonies, the first such in 1542; the legal thought behind them was the basis of modern international law.[citation needed] Taking advantage of their extreme remoteness, the European colonists revolted when they saw their power being reduced, forcing a partial revoking of these New Laws. Later, weaker laws were introduced to protect the indigenous peoples but records show their effect was limited.[citation needed] The restored Encomenderos increasingly used native Indian workforce.
The politics of implantation of the royal authority opposite to the Colón caused the suppression of the unit of government of the Indies and the appearance of governorates under royal authority. These governorates, also called as provinces, were the basic circumscriptions of the territorial government of the Indies,[111] and arose as the territories were conquered and colonized.[112] To carry out the conquest of the territory, the king, as owner of the Indies, agreed a capitulación with a particular laying down the conditions of the venture of conquest of a territory. The individuals assumed the expenses of the venture and in return received as reward the grant from the government of the conquered territories;[11Dell Latitude E6430-XFR Keyboard
3] and in addition, they received instructions about treating the aborigens.[114]
After the end of the period of conquests, it was necessary to manage extensive and different territories with a strong bureaucracy. In the face of the impossibility of the Castilian institutions to take care of the American affairs, other new institutions were created.[115] Dell Latitude E6520N Keyboard
As the basic political entity it was the governorate, the governors exercised judicial ordinary functions of first instance, and prerogatives of government legislating by ordinances.[116] To these political functions of the governor, it could be joined the military ones, according to military requirements, Dell Latitude E6530 Keyboard
Dell Precision M4500 Keyboard with the rank of Captain general.[117] The office of captain general involved to be the supreme military chief of the whole territory and he was responsible for recruiting and providing troops, the fortification of the territory, the supply and the shipbuilding.[118] Dell Latitude E5220 Keyboard
The impossibility of the physical presence of the monarch was replaced by viceroys, the post of viceroy the direct representation of the monarch.[119] The functions of the viceroy were: governor, captain general, president of the Audiencia, superintendent of the Royal Treasury and vicepatronage of the Church.[120][12Dell Latitude E5420M Keyboard
Dell Precision M4600 Keyboard 1] Thus, the territories of the viceroyalties emerged with posteriority to affirm the authority of the king in a specific territory. The territory which comprised the viceroyalty was divided in provinces Dell Latitude E6400 Keyboard
Dell Precision M2400 Keyboard —also called governorates- headed by the governor.[122] In the 16th century the Spanish overseas territories were divided in two viceroyalties: New Spain (1535) for North America, Antilles, the Philippines and Venezuela, and Peru (1542) for South America, which was divided in the 18th century.[123] Dell Latitude E6500 Keyboard
On the other hand, the Audiencias were constituted as a key administrative institution due to receive the confidence of the Crown as depositaries of an impartial authority opposite to conquerors and settlers.[124] Dell Latitude E6400-ATG Keyboard
Dell Latitude E6410-ATG Keyboard Their main function was that of being a court of justice of second instance —court of appeal— in penal and civil matters, but also the Audiencias were courts the first instance in the city where it had its headquarters, and also in the cases involving the Royal Treasury.[125Dell Latitude E6400-XFR Keyboard
Dell Latitude E6410 Keyboard ] Besides court of justice, the Audiencias had functions of government as counterweight the authority of the viceroys, since they could communicate with both the Council of the Indies and the king without the requirement of requesting authorization from the viceroy.[125Dell Latitude E4310 Battery
Dell Latitude E6420-ATG Battery] This direct correspondence of the Audiencia with the Council of The Indies made possible that the Council gave to the Audiencia all kinds of orientations about general aspects of government.[124] Dell Latitude E4320 Battery
The fact that the presidents were not habitually either magistrates or lawyers, but men clad in sword and cape,[125] caused that they did not have any vote in court cases, and the court did not submit to their authority, but in representation that of the king.[126] Thus, the authority of the president, when he was not a magistrate, was void in judicial matter and merely signed the verdicts.[127] Dell Latitude E4300 Battery
Dell Latitude E6230 Battery The Audiencias chaired by the viceroy were called viceregal Audiencias,[128] and the chaired ones by a governor-captain general were the pretorial Audiencias.[129][130][131] Dell Latitude E6500 Battery
As the pretorial Audiencias were chaired by a governor-captain general, this situation caused to appear the post of president-governor of major districts, with direct rule over a province and superior control of other provinces included inside the territorial district of the Audiencia, so that they exercised functions similar to the viceroys. Dell Latitude E5400 Battery
Dell Latitude E6120 Battery [132] Thus, another administrative division appeared: while the territories in charge of a governor were the minor provinces,[133] the juridisdiccional scope of the Audiencias constituted the major provinces.[134] Dell Latitude E5410 Battery
Former Viceregal Palace and seat of the Audiencia of Mexico, nowadays, the National Palace.
The members (oidores) of the Audiencia met with the president in a committee called royal agreement (real acuerdo), to take measurements for the government concerning the review of bylaws, appointments of commissioners (jueces pesquisidores), Dell Latitude E5500 Battery
Dell Latitude E6520 Battery or retention of bulls, but the advice did not correspond to the Audiencia as institution but to its members as reputable people.[126] The decisions of the royal agreement were established in the concerted writs (autos acordados), Dell Latitude E5420 Battery
nevertheless, there were matters as dispatching the issues of government, in which the Audiencia could not interfere either with the viceroy or the president-governor.[135] This way, the control of the Audiencias over the viceroys enabled to the Crown to control the functions of government of the viceroys.[136] Dell Latitude E5520 Battery
While the viceregal and pretorial Audiencias were chaired by men clad in sword and cape, the presidents of the subordinated Audiencias were magistrates,[128] so that, in the juridisdiccional scope of the subordinated Audiencias, the functions of government, Treasury and war belonged to the viceroy.[127][12Dell Latitude E6430 Battery
9][137] Therefore, in these sections of the viceroyalties there were no governors-captains general but Audiencias, and the presidency gave them the name, for example in Charcas and Quito.[138]
Although there were accumulated in the same person the offices of viceroy, governor, captain general and president of the Audiencia, Dell Latitude E6430-ATG Battery
Dell Precision M6500 Batteryeach of them had different jurisdictional areas.[139][140] The jurisdiction of the viceregal Audiencia, whose president was the viceroy, ended face up to the jurisdiction of other Audiencias inside the same viceroyalty: as the pretorial Audiencias chaired by a governor-captain general, Dell Latitude E6430-XFR Battery
Dell Precision M6400 Batterywho had administrative, political and military authority, as the subordinated Audiencias, whose president did not have this administrative, political and military authority.[129Dell Latitude E6520N Battery
Dell Precision M4500 Battery] Therefore, as governor, the direct administration of the province where was placed the viceregal capital belonged to the viceroy; nevertheless, with respect to the other governorates of the viceroyalty, his function was mere oversight or general inspection over the management of political affairs.[141][ Dell Latitude E6530 Battery
Dell Precision M6600 Battery142][143] The imprecision in defining the powers of the viceroy and those of the provincial governors allowed the Crown to control their officials.[144]
In the viceroyalty of New Spain, the Audiencia of Mexico, chaired by the viceroy, ended its jurisdiction face up to the jurisdiction of other Audiencias of Guatemala (1543–1563; Dell Latitude E5220 Battery
Dell Precision M4600 Battery 1568-), of Manila (1583–1589; 1595-), of Guadalajara (established in Compostela in 1548 and transferred in 1560 to Guadalajara)[145] and that of Santo Domingo (1526-). The viceroy of New Spain as governor only had jurisdiction over a more reduced governorate of New Spain, and as captain general his authority did not comprise either the captaincies of Yucatán or the New Kingdom of León,[146] but it comprised the military command over the governorate of Nueva Galicia,[147][ Dell Latitude E5420M Battery
Dell Precision M2400 Battery148] which was a territory under the jurisdiction of the Audiencia of Guadalajara, until in 1708 the captaincy general was attached to the governor of this province of Nueva Galicia.[149] Dell Latitude E6500 Battery
In the viceroyalty of Peru, the viceroy presided the Audiencia of Lima (1542-), and the jurisdiction of this Audiencia ended face up to the jurisdictions of the pretorial Audiencias of Panama (1538–1543; 1563–1717), of Santa Fe de Bogotá (1547-), Dell Latitude E6400-ATG Battery
Dell Latitude E6410-ATG Batteryof Santiago de Chile (in Concepción between 1565 and 1575, and in Santiago de Chile since 1605), and that of Buenos Aires (1661–1672), whose presidents were also both governors and captains general, and in addition to these Audiencias, the viceroyalty comprised the subordinated Audiencias of Charcas (La Plata; 1559-) and Quito (1563-).[150] Dell Latitude E6400-XFR Battery
The settlers came from Spain had to settle in towns, where the local government belonged to the Cabildo. The Cabildo was composed by a variable number of aldermen (regidores), around a dozen, depending on the size of the town, Dell XPS 14 Battery
also two municipal judges (alcaldes menores), who were judges of first instance, and also other officials as police chief, inspector of supplies, court clerk, and a public herald.[151] They were in charge of distributing land to the neighbors, establishing local taxes, dealing with the public order, inspecting jails and hospitals, Dell XPS 14D-L401X Battery
Dell XPS L502X Battery preserving the roads and public works such as irrigation ditchs and bridges, supervising the public health, regulating the festive activities, monitoring market prices, or the protection of Indians.[152][153][154] Dell XPS 15 Battery
Since the end of the reign of Philip II, the municipal offices, including the aldermen, were auctioned to alleviate the need for money of the Crown, even the offices could also be sold, which became hereditary,[1Dell XPS 15D Battery
Dell XPS L501X Battery 55] so that the government of the cities went on to hands of urban oligarchies.[156] In order to control the municipal life, the Crown ordered the appointment of corregidores and alcaldes mayores to exert greater political control and judicial functions in minor districts.[15Dell XPS 15-L501X Battery
7] Their functions were governing the respective municipalities, administering of justice and being appellate judges in the alcaldes menores' judgments,[158] but only the corregidor could preside over the cabildo.[159] However, both charges were also put up for sale freely since the late sixteenth century.[160] Dell XPS 15Z Battery
The Spanish Empire: reform and recovery (1700–1808)[edit source | editbeta]
Under the Treaties of Utrecht (11 April 1713), the European powers decided what the fate of Spain would be, in terms of the continental balance of power. The new Bourbon king Philip V retained the Spanish overseas empire, Dell XPS 17 Battery
but ceded the Spanish Netherlands, Naples, Milan, and Sardinia to Austria; Sicily and parts of Milan to Duchy of Savoy; and Gibraltar and Minorca to the Kingdom of Great Britain. Moreover, Philip V granted the British the exclusive right to slave trading in Spanish America for thirty years, the so-called asiento, Dell XPS L702X Battery
Dell XPS 17-L701X Battery as well as licensed voyages to ports in Spanish colonial dominions, openings, as Fernand Braudel remarked, for both licit and illicit smuggling (Brudel 1984 p 418).
The Battle of Cape Passaro, 11 August 1718.
Spain's economic and demographic recovery had begun slowly in the last decades of the Habsburg reign, as was evident from the growth of its trading convoys and much more rapid growth of illicit trade during the period, Sony SVE1511A1EW Keyboard
Sony SVE1711F1E Keyboard though this growth was slower than in its northern rivals who had gained increasing illicit access to its empire's markets. Critically, this recovery was not translated into institutional improvement because of the incompetent leadership of the unfortunate last Habsburg. Sony SVE1511F1E Keyboard
Sony SVE1711R1E Keyboard This legacy of neglect was reflected in the early years of Bourbon rule in which the military was ill-advisedly pitched into battle against the Quadruple Alliance (1718–1720). Sony SVE1511K1E Keyboard
Following the war, the new Bourbon monarchy would take a much more cautious approach to international relations, built upon a family alliance with Bourbon France, and continuing to follow a program of institutional renewal. Sony SVE1511L1E Keyboard
Bourbon Reforms[edit source | editbeta]
Main article: Bourbon Reforms
At the beginning of the Philip V's reign and due to the War of the Spanish Succession, the Spanish king Philip V initiated organizational reforms headed for a government more executive, giving priority to the direct decision of the monarch, opposite to the deliberative way of the polisynodial system of Councils.[161]
The Spanish Bourbons' broadest intentions were to break the power of the entrenched aristocracy of the Criollos in America (locally born colonials of European descent), and, eventually, loosen the territorial control of the Society of Jesus over the virtually independent theocracies[citation needed] Sony SVE1511P1E Keyboard
of Guarani Misiones: the Jesuits were expelled from Spanish America in 1767. In addition to the established consulados of Mexico City and Lima, firmly in the control of local landowners, a new rival consulado was set up at Vera Cruz. Sony SVE1511V1E Keyboard
Immediately, Philip's government set up a ministry of the Navy and the Indies (1714) and created first a Honduras Company (1714), a Caracas company, the Guipuzcoana Company (1728) and—the most successful one—a Havana Company (1740). Sony SVE1511W1E Keyboard
Sony SVE1513D1E KeyboardIn 1717–1718, the structures for governing the Indies, the Consejo de Indias and the Casa de Contratación that governed investments in the cumbersome escorted fleets were transferred from Seville to Cádiz, Sony SVE1512B1E Keyboard
Sony SVE1513C5E Keyboardwhich became the one port for all Indies trading (see flota system). Individual sailings at regular intervals were slow to displace the old habit of armed convoys, but by the 1760s there were regular packet ships plying the Atlantic between Cádiz and Havana and Puerto Rico, and at longer intervals to the Río de la Plata, where an additional viceroyalty was created in 1776. Sony SVE1512C6E Keyboard
Sony SVE1513C4E KeyboardThe contraband trade that was the lifeblood of the Habsburg empire declined in proportion to registered shipping (a shipping registry having been established in 1735).
Two upheavals registered unease within Spanish America and at the same time demonstrated the renewed resiliency of the reformed system: the Tupac Amaru uprising in Peru in 1780 and the rebellion of the comuneros of New Granada, both in part reactions to tighter, more efficient control. Sony SVE1512J1E Keyboard
18th century prosperity[edit source | editbeta]
San Felipe de Barajas Fortress Cartagena de Indias. In 1741 the Spanish defeated a vast British invasion fleet and army from this fortress in present-day Colombia during the Battle of Cartagena de Indias.
The 18th century was a century of prosperity for the overseas Spanish Empire as trade within grew steadily, particularly in the second half of the century, under the Bourbon reforms. Spain's crucial victory in the Battle of Cartagena de Indias against a massive British fleet and army in the Caribbean port of Cartagena de Indias, Sony SVE1711X1E Keyboard
one of a number of successful battles, helped Spain secure its dominance of America until the 19th century.
With a Bourbon monarchy came a repertory of Bourbon mercantilist ideas based on a centralized state, put into effect in America slowly at first but with increasing momentum during the century. Rapid shipping growth from the mid-1740s until the Seven Years' War (1756–1763), Sony SVE1712Q1E Keyboard
Sony SVE1713Z1E Keyboard reflecting in part the success of the Bourbons in bringing illicit trade under control. With the loosening of trade controls after the Seven Years' War, shipping trade within the empire once again began to expand, reaching an extraordinary rate of growth in the 1780s. Sony SVE1712Z1E Keyboard
The ending of Cádiz's trade monopoly with America brought about a rebirth of Spanish manufactures. Most notable was the rapidly growing textile industry of Catalonia which by the mid-1780s saw the first signs of industrialisation. This saw the emergence of a small, politically active commercial class in Barcelona. Sony SVE1713C5E Keyboard
This isolated pocket of advanced economic development stood in stark contrast to the relative backwardness of most of the country. Most of the improvements were in and around some major coastal cities and the major islands such as Cuba, with its plantations, and a renewed growth of precious metals mining in America. Sony SVE1713S1E Keyboard
On the other hand most of rural Spain and its empire, where the great bulk of the population lived, lived in relatively backward conditions by 18th century West European standards, reinforced old customs and isolation. Sony SVE1511A1EB Keyboard
Sony SVE1513B1E KeyboardAgricultural productivity remained low despite efforts to introduce new techniques to what was for the most part an uninterested, exploited peasant and labouring groups. Governments were inconsistent in their policies. Though there were substantial improvements by the late 18th century, Sony SVE14A1S1EB Keyboard
Sony SVE1513A4E Keyboard Spain was still an economic backwater. Under the mercantile trading arrangements it had difficulty in providing the goods being demanded by the strongly growing markets of its empire, and providing adequate outlets for the return trade.
Overseas expansion[edit source | editbeta]
A Spanish army captures British Pensacola in 1781. In 1783 the Treaty of Paris returns all of Florida to Spain for the return of the Bahamas.
The Bourbon institutional reforms were to bear fruit militarily when Spanish forces easily retook Naples and Sicily from the Austrians in 1734 during War of the Polish Succession, and during the War of Jenkins' Ear (1739–1742) Sony SVE1511R9ESI Keyboard
thwarted British efforts to seize the strategic cities of Cartagena de Indias and Santiago de Cuba by defeating a massive British army and navy[162] led by Edward Vernon, which ended Britain's ambitions in the Spanish Main. Moreover, though Spain lost minor territories to British forces towards the end of the Seven Years' War (1756–1763), Sony SVE1511V1EW Keyboard
Sony SVE1511R9E Keyboardshe was to recover these losses and seize the British naval base in the Bahamas during the American Revolutionary War (1775–83).
The greater part of what is the territory of today's Brazil had been claimed as Spanish when exploration began with the navigation of the length of the Amazon River in 1541–42 by Francisco de Orellana.
Sony SVE15 Keyboard Many Spanish expeditions explored large parts of this vast region, especially those close to Spanish settlements. Sony SVE1511W1ESI Keyboard
During the 16th and 17th centuries, Spanish soldiers, missionaries and adventurers also established pioneering communities, primarily in Paraná, Santa Catarina, and São Paulo, and forts on the northeastern coast threatened by the French and Dutch.
As Portuguese-Brazilian settlement expanded, following in the trail of the Bandeirantes exploits, these isolated Spanish groups were eventually integrated into Brazilian society. Only some Castilians who were displaced from the disputed areas of the Pampas of Rio Grande do Sul have left a significant influence on the formation of the gaucho, Sony SVE14 Keyboard
Sony SVE14A1S1E Keyboard when they mixed with Indian groups, Portuguese and blacks who arrived in the region during the 18th century. The Spanish were barred by their laws from slaving of indigenous people, leaving them without a commercial interest deep in the interior of the Amazon basin. The Laws of Burgos (1512)
Sony VPCF13M1E/B CPU cooling fan and the New Laws (1542) had been intended to protect the interests of indigenous people. While in spirit they were often abused, as through forced exploitative labour of locals, they did prevent widespread formal enslavement of indigenous people in Spanish territories. Sony VPCF11C4E/B CPU cooling fan
Sony VPCF11C5E CPU cooling fan
Sony VPCF1318E/H CPU cooling fan The Portuguese-Brazilian slavers, the Bandeirantes, had the advantage of access from the mouth of the Amazon River, which was on the Portuguese side of the line of Tordesillas. One famous attack upon a Spanish mission in 1628 resulted in the enslavement of about 60,000 indigenous people.[163] Sony VPCF11D4E CPU cooling fan
Sony VPC-F11M1E/H CPU cooling fan
Sony VPCF11S1E/B CPU cooling fan
In time, there were in effect a self-funding force of occupation. By the 18th century, much of the Spanish territory was under defacto control of Portuguese-Brazil. This reality was recognised with the legal transfer of sovereignty in 1750 of most of the Amazon basin and surrounding areas to Portugal in the Treaty of Madrid. Sony VPC-F2 CPU cooling fan
Sony VPC-F21Z1E CPU cooling fan
Sony VPCF13J0E/H CPU cooling fanThis settlement sowed the seeds of the Guarani War in 1756.
The California mission planning was begun in 1769. The Nootka Crisis (1789–1791) involved a dispute between Spain and Great Britain about the British settlement in Oregon to British Columbia. In 1791, the king of Spain gave Alessandro Malaspina an order to search for a Northwest Passage. Sony VPCF22J1E CPU cooling fan
Sony VPCF22L1E CPU cooling fan
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The Spanish empire had still not returned to first rate power status, but it had recovered considerably from the dark days at the beginning of the 18th century when it was, and particularly in continental matters, Sony VPCF22M1E CPU cooling fan
Sony VPCF13E4E CPU cooling fan at the mercy of other powers' political deals. The relatively more peaceful century under the new monarchy had allowed it to rebuild and start the long process of modernizing its institutions and economy. The demographic decline of the 17th century had been reversed. It was a middle-ranking power with great power pretensions that could not be ignored. But time was to be against it. Sony VPCF22S1E CPU cooling fan
The growth of trade and wealth in the colonies caused increasing political tensions as frustration grew with the improving but still restrictive trade with Spain. Malaspina's recommendation to turn the empire into a looser confederation to help improve governance and trade so as to quell the growing political tensions Sony VPCF22S8E CPU cooling fan
Sony VPCF12M1E/H CPU cooling fan between the élites of the empire's periphery and centre was suppressed by a monarchy afraid of losing control. All was to be swept away by the tumult that was to overtake Europe at the turn of the 19th century with the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars.
Sony VPCF12F4E/H CPU cooling fan
Twilight of the Global Empire (1800–1899)[edit source | editbeta]
Churruca's Death, oil on canvas about the Battle of Trafalgar by Eugenio Álvarez Dumont, Prado Museum.
The Second of May 1808: The Charge of the Mamelukes, by Francisco de Goya (1814).
The first major territory Spain was to lose in the 19th century was the vast and wild Louisiana Territory, which stretched north to Canada and was ceded by France in 1763 under the terms of the Treaty of Fontainebleau. The French, Sony VPCF23M1E CPU cooling fan
Sony VPCF23Q1E CPU cooling fan
Sony VPCF12E1E/H CPU cooling fanunder Napoleon, took back possession as part of the Treaty of San Ildefonso in 1800 and sold it to the United States (Louisiana Purchase, 1803).
The destruction of the main Spanish fleet, under French command, at the Battle of Trafalgar (1805) undermined Spain's ability to defend and hold on to its empire. Sony VPCF231S1E CPU cooling fan
Sony VPCF11Z1E/BI CPU cooling fan The British invasions of the Río de la Plata attempt to seize the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata in 1806. The viceroy retreated hastily to the hills when defeated by a small British force. However the Criollos militias and colonial army eventually repulsed the British.
Sony VPCF11C4E/B CPU cooling fan
The later intrusion of Napoleonic forces into Spain in 1808 (see Peninsular War) cut off effective connection with the empire. But it was internal tensions that ultimately ended the empire in the Americas.
Sony VPCF11S1E CPU cooling fan
Napoleon's sale in 1803 of the Louisiana Territory to the United States caused border disputes between the United States and Spain that, with rebellions in West Florida (1810) and in the remainder of Louisiana at the mouth of the Mississippi, Sony VPCF23S1E CPU cooling fan
Sony VPCF24M1E CPU cooling fan led to their eventual cession to the United States, along with the sale of all of Florida in the Adams–Onís Treaty (1819). In 1806 Baron Nikolai Rezanov attempted to negotiate a treaty between the Russian-American Company and Viceroyalty of New Spain but his premature death in 1807 ended any treaty hopes. Sony VPCF11C4E/B CPU cooling fan
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In 1808, Napoleon forced the abdication of the Spanish monarchy and placed his brother on the throne, however his unpopularity provoked an uprising from the Spanish people and the grinding guerrilla warfare, which Napoleon dubbed his "ulcer",Sony VPCF13Z8E CPU cooling fan
Sony VPCF13M8E/B CPU cooling fan
Sony VPCF13Z0E/B CPU cooling fanthe Peninsular War, (famously depicted by the painter Goya) ensued, followed by a power vacuum lasting up to a decade and turmoil for several decades, civil wars on succession disputes, a republic, and finally a liberal democracy. Sony VPCF13Z8E/BI CPU cooling fan
Sony VPCF12M0E/B CPU cooling fan
Napoleon forces the Abdications of Bayonne on 5 May and places his brother Joseph Bonaparte on the Spanish throne a month later. Popular uprising against the French and the abdications starts the Peninsular War. Resistance coalesces around juntas, emergency ad-hoc governments. A Supreme Central and Governing Junta of the Kingdom, Sony VPCF12S1E/B CPU cooling fan
Sony VPCF12S1E/B CPU cooling fan ruling in the name of Ferdinand VII, is created on 25 September to coordinate efforts among the various juntas.
Spanish American independence[edit source | editbeta]
In North America, Mexico, led by Agustin de Iturbide and Vicente Guerrero, declared its independence in 1821
The Battle of Ayacucho, 9 December 1824. The defeat of the Spanish army at Ayacucho in Peru signaled the end of Spain's empire in South America.
Main articles: Spanish American wars of independence and Junta (Peninsular War)
Juntas emerged in Spanish America as a result of Spain facing a political crisis due to the abdication of Ferdinand VII and Napoleon Bonaparte's invasion. Sony VPCF12Z1E/BI CPU cooling fan
Sony VPCF12Z1E CPU cooling fan Spanish Americans reacted in much the same way the Peninsular Spanish did, legitimizing their actions through traditional law, which held that sovereignty retroverted to the people in the absence of a legitimate king. Sony VPCF13M1E/H CPU cooling fan
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The majority of Spanish Americans continued to support the idea of maintaining a monarchy under Ferdinand VII, but did not support retaining absolute monarchy.[citation needed] Spanish Americans wanted self-government. Sony VPCF21Z1E/BI CPU cooling fan
Sony VPCF13S1E/B CPU cooling fan The juntas in the Americas did not accept the governments of the Europeans - neither the government set up for Spain by the French nor the various Spanish governments set up in response to the French invasion. The juntas did not accept the Spanish regency, isolated under siege in the city of Cadiz (1810-1812). Sony VPCF24Q1E CPU cooling fan
Sony VPCF22M0E CPU cooling fan They also rejected the Spanish Constitution of 1812 although the Constitution gave Spanish citizenship to natives of the territories that had belonged to the Spanish monarchy in both hemispheres.[164Sony VPCF23P1E CPU cooling fan
Sony VPCY21S1E/G CPU cooling fan] The Constitution of 1812 recognised indigenous peoples of the Americas as Spanish citizens. But the acquisition of citizenship for any casta of Afro-American peoples of the Americas was through naturalization - excluding slaves.
A long period of wars followed in America from 1811 to 1829. In South America this period of wars led to the freedom and independence of Argentina (1810), Paraguay (1811) and Uruguay (1815, but subsequently ruled by Brazil until 1828). Sony VPCF23N1E CPU cooling fan
Sony VPCY21S1E/L CPU cooling fan José de San Martín campaigned for independence in Chile (1818) and in Peru (1820). Further north, Simón Bolívar led forces that won independence between 1811 and 1825 for the area that became Venezuela, Colombia,
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Ecuador, Perú and Bolivia (then Alto Perú). In North America, a free-thinking priest, Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, declared Mexican freedom in 1810, with independence was won by Agustín de Iturbide in 1821.
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Central America declared its independence in 1821 and joined Mexico for a brief time (1822–23). Panama declared independence in 1821 and merged with the Republic of Gran Colombia (from 1821 to 1903). Royalist guerrillas continued the war in several countries, Sony PCG-41112M CPU cooling fan
Sony PCG-81212M CPU cooling fanand Spain launched attempts to retake Venezuela in 1827 and Mexico in 1829. Spain finally abandoned all plans of military re-conquest at death of King Ferdinand in 1833.
Santo Domingo likewise declared independence in 1821 and began negotiating for inclusion in Bolivar's Republic of Gran Colombia, Sony PCG-81111M CPU cooling fan
Sony PCG-81112M CPU cooling fanbut was quickly occupied by Haiti, which ruled it until an 1844 revolution. Then after 17 years of independence, in 1861, Santo Domingo was again made a colony due to Haitian aggressions, yet by 1865 Santo Domingo again declared independence, Sony PCG-81113L Keyboard
Sony PCG-71318L Keyboard making it the only territory which Spain recolonized. After 1865, then, only Cuba and Puerto Rico - and on the far side of the globe, the Philippines, Guam and nearby Pacific islands - remained in Spanish hands in the New World.
Changes and Reaction[edit source | editbeta] Sony PCG-81114L Keyboard
See also: Spanish–American War
Vizcaya explodes in the Battle of Santiago de Cuba.
The Spanish Empire in 1898.
In devastated Spain, the post-Napoleonic era created a political vacuum, broke apart any traditional consensus on sovereignty, fragmented the country politically and regionally and unleashed wars and disputes between progressives, liberals and conservatives. The instability inhibited Spain's development, Sony PCG-81115L Keyboard
which had started fitfully gathering pace in the previous century. A brief period of improvement occurred in the 1870s when the capable Alfonso XII of Spain and his thoughtful ministers succeeded in restoring some vigour to Spanish politics and prestige, but this was cut short by Alfonso's early death. Sony PCG-81311L Keyboard
An increasing level of nationalist, anti-colonial uprisings in various colonies culminated with the Spanish–American War of 1898, fought primarily over Cuba. Military defeat was followed by the independence of Cuba and the cession, for US$20 million, Sony PCG-81312L Keyboard
Sony PCG-71315L Keyboard of Puerto Rico, the Philippines, and Guam to the United States. On 2 June 1899, the second expeditionary battalion "Cazadores" of Philippines the last Spanish garrison in the Philippines, located in Baler, Aurora, was pulled out, effectively ending around 300 years of Spanish hegemony in this archipelago.[165Sony PCG-81411L Keyboard
Sony PCG-71314L Keyboard ] Its American and Asian presence ended, Spain then sold its remaining Pacific Ocean possessions to Germany in 1899, retaining only its African territories.
Territories in Africa (1885–1975)[edit source | editbeta]
By the end of the 17th century, only Melilla, Alhucemas, Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera (which had been taken again in 1564), Ceuta (part of the Portuguese Empire since 1415, has chosen to retain its links to Spain once the Iberian Union ended; the formal allegiance of Ceuta to Spain was recognized by the Treaty of Lisbon in 1668), Oran and Mazalquivir remained as Spanish territory in Africa. The latter cities were lost in 1708, reconquered in 1732 and sold by Charles IV in 1792.
A map of Equatorial Guinea.
In 1778, Fernando Poo Island (now Bioko), adjacent islets, and commercial rights to the mainland between the Niger and Ogooué Rivers were ceded to Spain by the Portuguese in exchange for territory in South America (Treaty of El Pardo). In the 19th century, some Spanish explorers and missionaries would cross this zone, among them Manuel de Iradier. Sony PCG-61511L Keyboard
In 1848, Spanish troops conquered the Islas Chafarinas.
In 1860, after the Tetuan War, Morocco ceded Sidi Ifni to Spain as a part of the Treaty of Tangiers, on the basis of the old outpost of Santa Cruz de la Mar Pequeña, thought to be Sidi Ifni. The following decades of Franco-Spanish collaboration resulted in the establishment and extension of Spanish protectorates south of the city, Sony PCG-61211L Keyboard
Sony PCG-71312L Keyboard and Spanish influence obtained international recognition in the Berlin Conference of 1884: Spain administered Sidi Ifni and Western Sahara jointly. Spain claimed a protectorate over the coast of Guinea from Cape Bojador to Cap Blanc, too. Río Muni became a protectorate in 1885 and a colony in 1900. Conflicting claims to the Guinea mainland were settled in 1900 by the Treaty of Paris. Sony PCG-61311L Keyboard
Following a brief war in 1893, Spain expanded its influence south from Melilla.
Morocco and Spanish territories.
In 1911, Morocco was divided between the French and Spanish. The Rif Berbers rebelled, led by Abdelkrim, a former officer for the Spanish administration. The Battle of Annual (1921) was a sudden, grave, and almost fatal, military defeat suffered by the Spanish army against Moroccan insurgents. A leading Spanish politician emphatically declared: "We are at the most acute period of Spanish decadence".[citation needed] Sony PCG-61312L Keyboard
The statement reflected the mood of the country. The rebellion exposed the utter corruption and incompetence of the military and destabilised the Spanish government, leading to dictatorship. A campaign in conjunction with the French suppressed the Rif rebels by 1925 but at a terrible cost to both sides. Sony PCG-61313L Keyboard
Sony PCG-71311L Keyboard In 1923, Tangier was declared an international city under French, Spanish, British, and later Italian joint administration.
In 1926 Bioko and Rio Muni were united as the colony of Spanish Guinea, a status that would last until 1959. In 1931, following the fall of the monarchy, the African colonies became part of the Second Spanish Republic. Sony PCG-61215L Keyboard
Sony PCG-71213L Keyboard Five years later, Francisco Franco, a general of the Army of Africa, rebelled against the republican government and started the Spanish Civil War (1936–39). During the Second World War the Vichy French presence in Tangier was overcome by that of Francoist Spain.
Spain lacked the wealth and the interest to develop an extensive economic infrastructure in its African colonies during the first half of the 20th century. However, through a paternalistic system, particularly on Bioko Island, Spain developed large cocoa plantations for which thousands of Nigerian workers were imported as laborers. Sony PCG-71317L Keyboard
In 1956, when French Morocco became independent, Spain surrendered Spanish Morocco to the new nation, but retained control of Sidi Ifni, the Tarfaya region and Spanish Sahara. Moroccan Sultan (later King) Mohammed V was interested in these territories and invaded Spanish Sahara in 1957 (The Ifni War, or, Sony PCG-61315L Keyboard
in Spain, the Forgotten War, la Guerra Olvidada). In 1958, Spain ceded Tarfaya to Mohammed V and joined the previously separate districts of Saguia el-Hamra (in the north) and Río de Oro (in the south) to form the province of Spanish Sahara. Sony PCG-61316L Keyboard
In 1959, the Spanish territory on the Gulf of Guinea was established with a status similar to the provinces of metropolitan Spain. As the Spanish Equatorial Region, it was ruled by a governor general exercising military and civilian powers. Sony PCG-7191L Keyboard
Sony PCG-7162L Keyboard The first local elections were held in 1959, and the first Equatoguinean representatives were seated in the Spanish parliament. Under the Basic Law of December 1963, limited autonomy was authorized under a joint legislative body for the territory's two provinces. The name of the country was changed to Equatorial Guinea. Sony PCG-7192L Keyboard
In March 1968, under pressure from Equatoguinean nationalists and the United Nations, Spain announced that it would grant the country independence. In 1969, under international pressure, Spain returned Sidi Ifni to Morocco. Sony PCG-7173L Keyboard
Sony PCG-7154L Keyboard Spanish control of Spanish Sahara endured until the 1975 Green March prompted a withdrawal, under Moroccan military pressure. The future of this former Spanish colony remains uncertain. Sony PCG-7172L Keyboard
The Canary Islands and Spanish cities in the African mainland are considered an equal part of Spain and the European Union but have a different tax system without Value Added Tax.
Morocco still claims Ceuta,
Sony PCG-7171L Keyboard Melilla, and plazas de soberanía even though they are internationally recognized as administrative divisions of Spain (despite Plazas de Soberania which is a territory of Spain). Isla Perejil (Arabic: Leila ("night")) was occupied on 11 July 2002 by Moroccan Gendarmerie and troops, who were evicted peacefully by Spanish naval forces.
Legacy[edit source | editbeta] Sony PCG-7174L Keyboard
The Renaissance Cathedral of Lima is a legacy of the Spanish settlement in that city.
The Spanish language (now the second most widely spoken language in the world) and the Roman Catholic faith were brought to America, Sony PCG-7181L Keyboard
parts of Africa and the Spanish East Indies, by Spanish colonization which began in the 15th century. It also played a crucial part in sustaining the Catholic Church as the leading Christian denomination in Europe when it was under extreme pressure. Sony PCG-7183L Keyboard
The long colonial period in Spanish America resulted in a mixing of peoples. Most Hispanics in the Americas have mixed indigenous and European ancestry, while a substantial proportion also have African ancestry. The only exceptions are Argentina, Chile, Cuba and Uruguay which experienced heavy European immigration in the post colonial period. Sony PCG-9Z2L Keyboard
In concert with the Portuguese Empire, the Spanish Empire laid the foundations of a truly global trade by opening up the great trans-oceanic trade routes. The Spanish Dollar became the world's first global currency. Sony PCG-9Z1L Keyboard
One of the features of this trade was the exchange of a great array of domesticated plants and animals between the Old World and the New and vice versa. Some that were introduced to America included wheat, Sony PCG-3F1L Keyboard
Sony PCG-3B3L Keyboard barley, apples, cattle, sheep, pigs, horses, donkeys, and many others. The Old World received from America such things as maize, potatoes, chili peppers, tomatoes, tobacco, beans, squash, cacao (chocolate), Sony PCG-3F2L Keyboard
Sony PCG-3B2L Keyboard vanilla, avocados, pineapples, chewing gum, rubber, peanuts, cashews, Brazil nuts, pecans, blueberries, strawberries, Sony PCG-3H1L Keyboard
Sony PCG-3H2L Keyboard quinoa, amaranth, chia, and agave. The result of these exchanges, known generally as the Columbian Exchange, was to significantly improve the agricultural potential of not only in America, but also that of Europe and Asia. Sony PCG-3F3L Keyboard
There were also cultural influences, which can be seen in everything from architecture to food, music, art and law, Sony PCG-3F4L Keyboard
Sony PCG-3H3L Keyboard from Southern Argentina and Chile to the Southwest United States. The complex origins and contacts of different peoples resulted in cultural influences coming together in the varied forms so evident today in the former colonial areas.
See also